Stig-Erik Jakobsen

The complexity of innovation: A relational turn

Recent contributions within the system of innovation approach are marked by an instrumentalism that views innovation as a predictable and standardized process that in most aspects counters theories and empirical observations stressing the multilevel, spontaneous and complex features of innovation. Informed by the relational turn within economic geography this paper develops an alternative analytical framework. We do this stepwise: first, by elaborating on how innovation was originally defined within the systems of innovation approach; second, by outlining a relational based analytical framework based on the concept of social fields; and, finally, by demonstrating how it has been applied.

Clusters, Social Fields, and Capabilities: Rules and Restructuring in Norwegian Fish-Processing Clusters

Abstract This article addresses how the economic organization and evolution of industrial clusters is affected by how firms are embedded in social fields—dense agent networks with shared rules of conduct, coordinating interfirm relations. The article points out that while clusters represent a local form of economic organization, they do not depend solely upon local social fields. Rather, some clusters are influenced by regional and national, as well as global, social fields, and it is argued that this may explain the ability of these clusters to restructure and adapt to changing market conditions. The importance of various social fields for three Norwegian fish-processing clusters is analyzed. Very different local and national, as well as global, networks affect these clusters. Consequently, the clusters have evolved quite differently. The case studies presented in the article suggest that while a local social field may facilitate coordination among firms in a cluster, it may also create collusion and create economic lock-in.

Continuity and change in path-dependent regional policy development: The regional implementation of the Norwegian VRI programme

Despite being promoted as a fresh start, new innovation programmes tend to inherit structures and procedures from previous initiative. The authors examine the regional implementation of the Norwegian VRI programme (Programme for Regional R&D and Innovation). Using insights from evolutionary theory, they elaborate on the coexistence of continuity and change in programme practice. Characteristics of previous programmes that have been followed in the new VRI programme are outlined, and new elements and procedures that have been introduced are tracked. The authors find that the new programme does not mark a radical break with the past, and clearly shows path-dependent evolution. Based on the assumption that ‘history matters’, the article contributes towards a more nuanced understanding of the various dimensions of path dependency.

Head Office Location: Agglomeration, Clusters or Flow Nodes?

How can we understand head office location in a knowledge-intensive urban economy? This is the basic question addressed in this paper. Even if proximity is important in understanding location, a study must also emphasise the multiplicity of connections that surpass the cluster or city level, which are critical for the operation of the head office. The study offers new insights into the categorisation of head office location and illustrates the importance of a multilevel perspective by analysing head offices as nodes within a system of internal, regional and external flows of knowledge and information. This theoretical approach is inspired by the work of Amin and Thrift. The papers theory-informed discussion is based on empirical data from a survey of the largest companies in Norway and on intensive case studies from a selection of these firms.

Cluster policy and regional development: scale, scope and renewal

Consistent with Marshallian/Porterian theories, the Norwegian cluster policy has been linked to the development of specialized regional industry environments. Cluster projects are relatively sector-specific entities often supporting (already) strong regional industries and sectors. Following a review of the current literature on clusters and innovation, and informed by evolutionary thought, we argue that such constellations of specialized clusters may hamper the long-term innovation ability of regions. In a conceptual discussion of cluster evolution and its links to innovation and regional path renewal, we argue that special emphasis – both theoretical and political – has been placed on the geographical scale of clusters, but there has been less emphasis on scope. Accordingly, we present three theory-based strategies for cluster evolution and link these to regional development and innovation by assessing their impact on regional path renewal. We illustrate our argument empirically using examples from the Norwegian Centre of Expertise (NCE) cluster programme.

Between bonding and bridging: Regional differences in innovative collaboration in Norway

The objective of the article is to investigate innovation collaboration among firms in different types of regions in Norway. Informed by literature on innovation network and regional development, the authors examine whether firms in some regions participate more frequently in innovation collaboration than firms in other regions. They also discuss regional differences in type of innovation collaboration. The analysis is based on data from the Sixth Norwegian Community Innovation Survey (CIS), collected by Statistics Norway in 2008, which provided both descriptive statistics and could be used for logistic regression analysis. Key findings are that the likelihood of innovation collaboration is inversely related to region size, and innovation collaboration is especially prevalent among firms in rural regions. A further finding is that firms in rural regions are more involved in bridging linkages (collaboration with different type of actors) than firms in the capital and metropolitan regions. These differences are attributed to the ‘organizational thinness’ of rural regions, which indicate as lack of specific resources in the regions and therefore creates a need for external collaborators.

New path development between innovation systems and individual actors

ABSTRACT This special issue is devoted to studying mechanisms that may stimulate or hamper the renewal of existing industry paths and the growth of new paths. In this guest editorial, we look closely at the role of policy instruments in situations where the majority of regional industries are embedded in strong regional and/or national innovation systems. This theme is currently very relevant in (parts of) Norway, where the dominant oil sector is downsizing and new growth paths are required to maintain employment and welfare. The guest editorial presents a theoretical framework for new regional industrial path development, followed by a discussion on how two Norwegian policy tools contribute to new path development. The 10 articles of the special issue study different aspects of new regional industrial path development based on cases in Norway, Sweden and Spain. Some papers also discuss the role of policy in new path development. Based on the findings from these articles, we believe that new path development is fostered by policies that incorporate both actor-based and system-based elements. Such policy mix could provide a vital push towards new path development.

Models of Organization in Norwegian Professional Soccer

Abstract The article departs from the observation that Norways mens top football clubs, in contrast to clubs in most other countries, are not permitted to organize as pure public limited companies (plcs). The clubs are organized as voluntary associations, but since 1992, top clubs have developed contractual relationships with plcs to attract investments from commercial actors. In this article we ask if this dual governance structure is just a schizoid state of affairs treading a pathway between voluntary and corporate organization, or if it is in fact viable, reflecting characteristics of the national system that restrict the dominance of business on sport organizations. The article shows that pressures on field level, national systems level and club level all impact on the organizing of mens soccer clubs.

The spatial embeddedness of professional football clubs in Norway

In tune with professional football in other European countries, Norwegian football has experienced increased commercialization and a growing international influence since the mid‐1990s. A conventional view is that such processes will result in a de‐coupling or dis‐embedding of the organization from its local context. By analysing the spatiality of the club–environment linkages, and the inter‐dependency between football clubs and its institutional contexts, our study puts this assumption to the test. The essay demonstrates that the practice of top football clubs is still influenced by their local context. In some aspects, the linkages between the club and its community have even been intensified. The organization of football clubs involves the recasting of social, economic and cultural processes both upwards and downwards in scale, rather than being reduced to the upscaling of processes from a local to a global scale. Clubs seem to intensify simultaneously their local anchoring and stretching their geographical scope. Thus, as the essay tries to show, it is important to identify the distinctiveness or the local flavour of this spatial rescaling in selected cases.

Encounters between cluster theory, policy and practice in Norway: Hubbing, blending and conceptual stretching

For more than two decades, cluster theory has served as a basis for widespread implementation of regional development policies in several countries. However, there are still persistent struggles in academia towards agreement on clear operational definitions of a cluster. In this article, we argue that this definitional haziness, reflected by difficulties in demarcating the scale and scope of clusters, leads to a stretching of the cluster concept when put into practice. We show how actors, through cluster projects, are utilizing strategies of “hubbing” and/or “blending” to develop their own understandings of both what clusters are and what they might or should be. Through studies of three Norwegian cluster projects, we argue that national cluster policies, through translation of an academically vague concept, facilitate a stretching of the original definition of clusters, giving regional stakeholders leeway to integrate other theoretical rationales instead. We argue that this is not taken into account in current policies.