Stuart M. Keeley

Operant clinical intervention: Behavior management or beyond? Where are the data?

Operant studies published in Behavior Therapy, Behaviour Research and Therapy , and the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis from 1972–1973 were reviewed to determine whether clinically applied operant research extends beyond short-term behavioral management toward lasting, generalizable behavior changes. Each investigation was classified as to presence or absence of long-term follow-up data, and of stimulus and response generalization data (whether short- or long-term). Studies were further identified as to target behaviors studied, nature of data collected, settings studied, and outcome. Findings suggest that researchers are not extensively studying the operant approach beyond the demonstration that shortterm changes are possible given adequate environmental engineering. Evidence relating to long-term and/or generalizable changes is conspicuous by its absence; and the meager evidence available raises serious doubts about our ability to go “beyond management.”

Training parents in behavior modification: Outcome of and problems encountered in a program after Patterson's work

Seven families of children exhibiting behavior management problems were trained in behavior modification techniques, using procedures modeled after the work of Patterson and his associates. Outcome was evaluated by coded home observations, by parental reports, and by consultant and home observer reports. Three of these families showed positive short-term changes in the multiple measures; only one family showed substantial long-term changes. Data collection and interpretation problems are discussed, as are possible reasons for the failure to obtain long-term changes for more families.

Coping with Student Resistance to Critical Thinking: What the Psychotherapy Literature Can Tell Us.

Almost all college and university teachers advocate critical think ing as a fundamental goal of education. Books on critical thinking abound; more people attend international workshops (e.g., International Confer ence on Critical Thinking and Education al Reform at Sonoma State University), and entire journal issues are devoted to the topic (e.g., Focus 15, 1984, Focus 24, 1990, and National Forum, Winter, 1985). However, evidence is sparse that many teachers are successfully imple menting critical thinking in their class rooms or that large numbers of students are developing critical thinking skills. In fact, the literature suggests that most classrooms are greatly lacking in critical thinking activity (Ellner and Barnes 1983; Perkins 1985). Why the discrepancy between what is praised and what is practiced? One possi ble cause is in the interaction or relation

A COMPARISON OF FRESHMEN AND SENIORS ON GENERAL AND SPECIFIC ESSAY TESTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

There is much interest in the impact of college on critical thinking ability. Freshmen and seniors at a mideastern university were given either a general instruction or multiple specific instructions for critically evaluating one of two articles. All critiques were in essay form. Seniors provided more appropriate criticisms to both kinds of instructions for both articles. However, the absolute level of performance of seniors reflected major deficiencies in applying critical evaluation skills. It was concluded that while college seems to be having an impact, greater emphasis is needed on more directly teaching critical thinking skills in the classroom.

Exercise and diet therapy: Psychotherapists' beliefs and practices.

Two hundred thirty-two members of Division 29 of the American Psychological Association (46.4% of those randomly sampled) responded to a survey concerning their assessment and recommendation practices relating to nutrition and to exercise and physical fitness. Respondents reported assessing and recommending diet and exercise practices less frequently than other health behaviors, but many indicated conditions amenable to exercise and diet recommendations. Few therapists had received education in exercise and nutrition, but more than half believed that diet and exercise should be required as a component of the graduate school curriculum. The topics of exercise and nutrition have received considerable attention in recent years, as anecdotal and scientific evidence of benefits mounts. Findings of relations among exercise, diet, and cardiovascular risk reduction have stimulated research on other possible benefits of exercise and diet regimens. Many studies suggesting that exercise and nutrition therapies enhance psychological well-being have appeared. If psychotherapists were reading the research literature on the effects of exercise and nutrition on mental health, they would be encountering consistent positive findings (e.g., Folkins & Sime, 1981; Simons, Epstein, McGowna, & Kupfer, 1985). In addition, although the effect of nutrition on mental health has been much less intensely studied than has the effect of exercise, a number of writers have enthusiastically claimed that improved nutrition can enhance psychological well-being (e.g., Cheraskin & Ringsdorf, 1976; Pfeiffer, 1976; Sheinkin, Schachter, & Hutton, 1979). A group of mental health practitioners to whom the literature on exercise, nutrition, and mental health is especially relevant is that of practicing psychotherapists, who daily have the opportunity to prescribe exercise and nutrition therapy to clients seeking help. Actively prescribing such remedies would suggest that practicing therapists are convinced of its utility for treatment in the context of the present scientific and anecdotal evidence, whether justifiably so or not; the absence of such prescribing would suggest the absence of such conviction. In either

Simultaneous and successive presentations of single-featured and multi-featured visual forms: Implications for the parallel processing hypothesis

The parallel processing hypothesis predicts no difference in hit rate (HR) for identical forms presented simultaneously or successively. This was tested in two experiments differing only in the number of features distinguishing stimulus forms: (1) one feature (Landolt Cs); (2) multiple features (the graphemes A, T, U). Each experiment had three conditions: (1) single form, (2) four simultaneous forms, (3) four successive forms. The major finding was a lack of HR increase for four simultaneous Cs over one C. HRs for successive Cs and both multiple letter conditions sharply increased over the one form condition. Results call into question the level at which parallel processing occurs. Three decision models, all assuming perceptual independence, were tested. None fit all the data.

A Bayesian prediction of four-look recognition performance from one-look data: II

In a recent paper, four-look recognition performance was predicted from one-look (lL) data by Bayes’s theorem, with the entire pattern of two Ss’ four-look data being predicted reasonably well. In the present study, three Ss were run, with the addition that feedback was given and confidence judgments were required. Their task was to identify tachistoscopically presented graphemes A, T, or U. Predictions of four-look performance were made using three orders of lL data matrices, differing in the breakdown of confidence categories. The three matrices led to reasonably accurate predictions. Predictions varied somewhat in accuracy, depending on the order of the lL matrix. The possibility that the variation in predictive accuracy reflected the capacity of an S to combine information received from each observation was discussed. The capacity question is presently under investigation by the authors.

A Bayesian prediction of multiple-look identification performance from one-look data: The effect of unequal prior probabilities

Bayes’s theorem had accurately predicted multiple-look visual identification performance from one-look data in two previous studies when the prior probabilities of the visual stimuli were equal. In this study, prior probabilities were manipulated to determine whether these values were important in determining agreement between man and statistical man. The prior probabilities of the stimuli, four gap orientations in Landolt rings, were .7, .1, .1, and .1 for four Ss and .3, .3, .3, and .1 for three Ss. One-look data were used to predict two-look and four-look performance. In the 7-1-1-1 condition, the empirical percent correct increased as a function of repeated observations for the rare stimuli, but not for the high-probability stimuli. In the 3-3-3-1 condition, Ss improved over repeated observations for both types of stimuli. Predictions of multiple-look performance under unequal prior probability conditions in this study were less accurate than those under equal prior probability conditions in previous studies. Three possible determinants of this difference were discussed.

Attitudes toward traditional and nontraditional dissertation research: Survey of directors of clinical training.

Les auteurs enquetent aupres de 62 directeurs de formation de psychologues cliniciens dans le but de determiner leurs attitudes envers la recherche traditionnelle (methode experimentale ou correlationnelle) ou non traditionnelle (etudes phenomenologiques, enquetes, recherches bibliographiques, histoires de cas) dans une these. Les resultats sont discutes dans le contexte de la formation doctorale

Visual detection as a function of attentional demand and perceptual system error

Attentional demands were varied in a two-alternative, forced-choice detection experiment. A bar indicator designated the target form in one condition and occurred in random locations in a second condition. Exposure durations necessary for predetermined single-form display HRs were determined for each of eight Ss to measure performance at different levels of perceptual system error. Forms differed in only a single feature. Detection was superior when the bar indicator designated the target form, and differences increased with increased display size. Evidence for interference in detection due to the presence of nontarget forms apart from noting requirements of such forms was found. Estimates of number of perceptual channels noted did not clearly differentiate serial from parallel processing models. It was concluded that display interference error and spatial selectivity influences are important determinants of detection accuracy.