Suryanarayanarao Ramakumar

Structure-Function Analysis and Insights into the Reduced Toxicity of Abrus precatorius Agglutinin I in Relation to Abrin.

Abrin and agglutinin-I from the seeds of Abrus precatorius are type II ribosome-inactivating proteins that inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. The two toxins share a high degree of sequence similarity; however, agglutinin-I is weaker in its activity. We compared the kinetics of protein synthesis inhibition by abrin and agglutinin-I in two different cell lines and found that ∼200-2000-fold higher concentration of agglutinin-I is needed for the same degree of inhibition. Like abrin, agglutinin-I also induced apoptosis in the cells by triggering the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway, although at higher concentrations as compared with abrin. The reason for the decreased toxicity of agglutinin-I became apparent on the analysis of the crystal structure of agglutinin-I obtained by us in comparison with that of the reported structure of abrin. The overall protein folding of agglutinin-I is similar to that of abrin-a with a single disulfide bond holding the toxic A subunit and the lectin-like B-subunit together, constituting a heterodimer. However, there are significant differences in the secondary structural elements, mostly in the A chain. The substitution of Asn-200 in abrin-a with Pro-199 in agglutinin-I seems to be a major cause for the decreased toxicity of agglutinin-I. This perhaps is not a consequence of any kink formation by a proline residue in the helical segment, as reported by others earlier, but due to fewer interactions that proline can possibly have with the bound substrate.

Space-group frequencies of proteins and of organic compounds with more than one formula unit in the asymmetric unit

An analysis of the distribution of organic crystal structures with more than one formula unit in the asymmetric unit among the 230 space groups has been carried out for the compounds listed in the Cambridge Structural Database. 8.3% of the total number of compounds (51 611) in the database have more than one formula unit in the asymmetric unit; 81% of these are reported in only five space groups: P21/c (27.8%), P{\bar 1} (23.5%), P21 (13.8%), P1 (8.5%) and P212121(7.8%). When all compounds are considered, the first five most populous space groups are: P21/c (36.6%), P{\bar 1}(16.9%), P212121 (11.0%), C2/c (7.0%) and P21 (6.4%). The distribution of compounds among the seven crystal systems is also reported. The frequencies indicate a preferential occurrence of lower-symmetry space groups for structures with more than one formula unit in the asymmetric unit. Space-group frequencies for protein crystal structures from the Protein Data Bank, Brookhaven, have been calculated and are compared with those of chiral small molecules.

Crystal structures of native and xylosaccharide-bound alkali thermostable xylanase from an alkalophilic Bacillus sp. NG-27: structural insights into alkalophilicity and implications for adaptation to polyextreme conditions.

Crystal structures are known for several glycosyl hydrolase family 10 (GH10) xylanases. However, none of them is from an alkalophilic organism that can grow in alkaline conditions. We have determined the crystal structures at 2.2 Å of a GH10 extracellular endoxylanase (BSX) from an alkalophilic Bacillus sp. NG‐27, for the native and the complex enzyme with xylosaccharides. The industrially important enzyme is optimally active and stable at 343 K and at a pH of 8.4. Comparison of the structure of BSX with those of other thermostable GH10 xylanases optimally active at acidic or close to neutral pH showed that the solvent‐exposed acidic amino acids, Asp and Glu, are markedly enhanced in BSX, while solvent‐exposed Asn was noticeably depleted. The BSX crystal structure when compared with putative three‐dimensional homology models of other extracellular alkalophilic GH10 xylanases from alkalophilic organisms suggests that a protein surface rich in acidic residues may be an important feature common to these alkali thermostable enzymes. A comparison of the surface features of BSX and of halophilic proteins allowed us to predict the activity of BSX at high salt concentrations, which we verified through experiments. This offered us important lessons in the polyextremophilicity of proteins, where understanding the structural features of a protein stable in one set of extreme conditions provided clues about the activity of the protein in other extreme conditions. The work brings to the fore the role of the nature and composition of solvent‐exposed residues in the adaptation of enzymes to polyextreme conditions, as in BSX.

Targeting Mycobacterium tuberculosis nucleoid-associated protein HU with structure-based inhibitors

The nucleoid-associated protein HU plays an important role in maintenance of chromosomal architecture and in global regulation of DNA transactions in bacteria. Although HU is essential for growth in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), there have been no reported attempts to perturb HU function with small molecules. Here we report the crystal structure of the N-terminal domain of HU from Mtb. We identify a core region within the HU-DNA interface that can be targeted using stilbene derivatives. These small molecules specifically inhibit HU-DNA binding, disrupt nucleoid architecture and reduce Mtb growth. The stilbene inhibitors induce gene expression changes in Mtb that resemble those induced by HU deficiency. Our results indicate that HU is a potential target for the development of therapies against tuberculosis.

Molecule Modeling of Human Pentameric alpha(7) Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor and Its Interaction with its Agonist and Competitive Antagonist

Abstract The nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) is the major class of neurotransmitter receptors that is involved in many neurodegenerative conditions such as schizophrenia, Alzheimers and Parkinsons diseases. The N-terminal region or Ligand Binding Domain (LBD) of nAChR is located at pre- and post-synaptic nervous system, which mediates synaptic transmission. nAChR acts as the drug target for agonist and competitive antagonist molecules that modulate signal transmission at the nerve terminals. Based on Acetylcholine Binding Protein (AChBP) from Lymnea stagnalis as the structural template, the homology modeling approach was carried out to build three dimensional model of the N-terminal region of human α7nAChR. This theoretical model is an assembly of five α7 subunits with 5 fold axis symmetry, constituting a channel, with the binding pocket present at the interface region of the subunits. α-neurotoxin is a potent nAChR competitive antagonist that readily blocks the channel resulting in paralysis. The molecular interaction of α-Bungarotoxin, a long chain α-neurotoxin from (Bungarus multicinctus) and human α7nAChR was studied. Agonists such as acetylcholine, nicotine, which are used in a diverse array of biological activities, such as enhancements of cognitive performances, were also docked with the theoretical model of human α7nAChR. These docked complexes were analyzed further for identifying the crucial residues involved in interaction. These results provide the details of interaction of agonists and competitive antagonists with three dimensional model of the N-terminal region of human α7nAChR and thereby point to the design of novel lead compounds.

The Critical Role of N- and C-Terminal Contact in Protein Stability and Folding of a Family 10 Xylanase under Extreme Conditions

Background Stabilization strategies adopted by proteins under extreme conditions are very complex and involve various kinds of interactions. Recent studies have shown that a large proportion of proteins have their N- and C-terminal elements in close contact and suggested they play a role in protein folding and stability. However, the biological significance of this contact remains elusive. Methodology In the present study, we investigate the role of N- and C-terminal residue interaction using a family 10 xylanase (BSX) with a TIM-barrel structure that shows stability under high temperature, alkali pH, and protease and SDS treatment. Based on crystal structure, an aromatic cluster was identified that involves Phe4, Trp6 and Tyr343 holding the N- and C-terminus together; this is a unique and important feature of this protein that might be crucial for folding and stability under poly-extreme conditions. Conclusion A series of mutants was created to disrupt this aromatic cluster formation and study the loss of stability and function under given conditions. While the deletions of Phe4 resulted in loss of stability, removal of Trp6 and Tyr343 affected in vivo folding and activity. Alanine substitution with Phe4, Trp6 and Tyr343 drastically decreased stability under all parameters studied. Importantly, substitution of Phe4 with Trp increased stability in SDS treatment. Mass spectrometry results of limited proteolysis further demonstrated that the Arg344 residue is highly susceptible to trypsin digestion in sensitive mutants such as ΔF4, W6A and Y343A, suggesting again that disruption of the Phe4-Trp6-Tyr343 (F-W-Y) cluster destabilizes the N- and C-terminal interaction. Our results underscore the importance of N- and C-terminal contact through aromatic interactions in protein folding and stability under extreme conditions, and these results may be useful to improve the stability of other proteins under suboptimal conditions.

Thermostable xylanase from Thermoascus aurantiacus at ultrahigh resolution (0.89 A) at 100 K and atomic resolution (1.11 A) at 293 K refined anisotropically to small-molecule accuracy.

Thermoascus aurantiacus xylanase is a thermostable enzyme which hydrolyses xylan, a major hemicellulose component of the biosphere. The crystal structure of this F/10 family xylanase, which has a triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) barrel (beta/alpha)(8) fold, has been solved to small-molecule accuracy at atomic resolution (1.11 A) at 293 K (RTUX) and at ultrahigh resolution (0.89 A) at 100 K (CTUX) using X-ray diffraction data sets collected on a synchrotron light source, resulting in R/R(free) values of 9.94/12.36 and 9.00/10.61% (for all data), respectively. Both structures were refined with anisotropic atomic displacement parameters. The 0.89 A structure, with 177 476 observed unique reflections, was refined without any stereochemical restraints during the final stages. The salt bridge between Arg124 and Glu232, which is bidentate in RTUX, is water-mediated in CTUX, suggesting the possibility of plasticity of ion pairs in proteins, with water molecules mediating some of the alternate arrangements. Two buried waters present inside the barrel form hydrogen-bond interactions with residues in strands beta2, beta3, beta4 and beta7 and presumably contribute to structural stability. The availability of accurate structural information at two different temperatures enabled the study of the temperature-dependent deformations of the TIM-barrel fold of the xylanase. Analysis of the deviation of corresponding C(alpha) atoms between RTUX and CTUX suggests that the interior beta-strands are less susceptible to changes as a function of temperature than are the alpha-helices, which are on the outside of the barrel. betaalpha-loops, which are longer and contribute residues to the active-site region, are more flexible than alphabeta-loops. The 0.89 A structure represents one of the highest resolution structures of a protein of such size with one monomer molecule in the asymmetric unit and also represents the highest resolution TIM-barrel fold structure to date. It may provide a useful template for theoretical modelling studies of the structure and dynamics of the ubiquitous TIM-barrel fold.

Self-assembled dipeptide nanotubes constituted by flexible β-phenylalanine and conformationally constrained α,β-dehydrophenylalanine residues as drug delivery system

Peptide based self assembled nanostructures have attracted growing interest in recent years due to their numerous potential applications particularly in biomedical sciences. Di-peptide Phe-Phe was shown previously to self-assemble into nanotube like structures. In this work, we studied the affect of peptide backbone length and conformational flexibility on the self assembly process by using two dipeptides based on the Phe-Phe backbone (βPhe-Phe and βPhe-ΔPhe): one containing a flexible βPhe amino acid, and the other containing both a flexible βPhe as well as a backbone constraining ΔPhe (α,β-dehydrophenylalanine) amino acid. Electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction experiments revealed that these new di-peptides can self-assemble into nanotubes having different properties than the native Phe-Phe nanotubes. These nanotubes were stable over a broad range of temperatures and the introduction of non-natural amino acids provided them with stability against the action of nonspecific proteases. Moreover, these dipeptides showed no cytotoxicity towards HeLa and L929 cells, and were able to encapsulate small drug molecules. We further showed that anticancerous drug mitoxantrone was more efficient in killing HeLa and B6F10 cells when entrapped in nanotubes as compared to free mitoxantrone. Therefore, these β-phenylalanine and α,β-dehydrophenylalanine containing dipeptide nanotubes may be useful in the development of biocompatible and proteolytically stable drug delivery vehicles.

Role of two consecutive α,β-dehydrophenylalanines in peptide structure: crystal and molecular structure of Boc-Leu-ΔPhe-ΔPhe-Ala-Phe-NHMe

An Nα‐protected model pentapeptide containing two consecutive ΔPhe residues, Boc‐Leu‐ΔPhe‐ΔPhe‐Ala‐Phe‐NHMe, has been synthesized by solution methods and fully characterized. 1H‐nmr studies provided evidence for the occurrence of a significant population of a conformer having three consecutive, intramolecularly H‐bonded β‐bends in solution. The solid state structure has been determined by x‐ray diffraction methods. The crystals grown from aqueous methanol are orthorhombic, space group P212121, a = 11.503(2), b = 16.554(2), c = 22.107(3) Å, V = 4209(1) Å,3 and Z = 4. The x‐ray data were collected on a CAD4 diffractometer using CuKa radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å). The structure was determined using direct methods and refined by full‐matrix least‐squares procedure. The R factor is 5.3%. The molecule is characterized by a right handed 310‐helical conformation (〈ϕ〉 = −68.2°, 〈ψ〉 = −26.3°), which is made up of two consecutive type III β‐bends and one type I β‐bend. In the solid state the helical molecules are aligned head‐to‐tail, thus forming long rod like structures. A comparison with other peptide structures containing consecutive ΔPhe residues is also provided. The present study confirms that the ‐ΔPhe‐ΔPhe‐sequence can be accommodated in helical structures.

Biomimetic molecular organization of naphthalene diimide in the solid state: tunable (chiro-) optical, viscoelastic and nanoscale properties

The interfacing of aromatic molecules with biomolecules to design functional molecular materials is a promising area of research. Intermolecular interactions determine the performance of these materials and therefore, precise control over the molecular organization is necessary to improve functional properties. Herein we describe the tunable biomimetic molecular engineering of a promising n-type organic semiconductor, naphthalene diimide (NDI), in the solid state by introducing minute structural mutations in the form of amino acids with variable Cα-functionality. For the first time we could achieve all four possible crystal packing modes, namely cofacial, brickwork, herringbone and slipped stacks of the NDI system. Furthermore, amino acid conjugated NDIs exhibit ultrasonication induced organogels with tunable visco-elastic and temperature responsive emission properties. The amino acid–NDI conjugates self-assemble into 0D nanospheres and 1D nanofibers in their gel state while the ethylamine–NDI conjugate forms 2D sheets from its solution. Photophysical studies indicated the remarkable influence of molecular ordering on the absorption and fluorescence properties of NDIs. Interestingly, the circular dichroism (CD) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies revealed the existence of helical ordering of NDIs in both solution and solid state. The chiral amino acids and their conformations with respect to the central NDI core are found to influence the nature of the helical organization of NDIs. Consequently, the origin of the preferential handedness in the helical organization is attributed to transcription of chiral information from the amino acid to the NDI core. On account of these unique properties, the materials derived from NDI-conjugates might find a wide range of future interdisciplinary applications from materials to biomedicine.