Susan C. Mantell

Manufacturing Process Models for Thermoplastic Composites

Models were developed which simulate the processing of thermoplastic matrix composites. The models relate the applied temperature, pressure, speed, and time to the temperature, crystallinity, consolidation, interlaminar bonding, and residual stresses and strains inside the composite. The formulations follow the models proposed by Springer, Loos, and their coworkers for manufacturing plates in a press or in an autoclave, but were extended to include cylindrical geometries, variations in the applied temperatures and pressures with position and time, and rapid bonding. These extensions make the models applicable to the manufacture of plates by tape laying and to filament winding of cylinders. These models were incorporated into a user friendly computer code which can be used to generate numerical results and to select the appropriate processing conditions for processing thermoplastic composite plates 1) in an autoclave, 2) in a press, or 3) by tape laying, and 4) for filament winding thermoplastic composite cylinders.

The effect of fiber volume fraction on filament wound composite pressure vessel strength

This paper is a continuation of previous research reported in Ref. [1]. The previous paper discussed the relationship between fiber volume fraction in filament wound composite vessels and failure pressure. This research included a design of experiment investigation of manufacturing and design variables that affect composite vessel quality and strength. Statistical analysis of the data shows that composite vessel strength was affected by the manufacturing and design variables. In general, it was found that the laminate stacking sequence, winding tension, winding-tension gradient, winding time, and the interaction between winding-tension gradient and winding time significantly affected composite strength. The mechanism responsible for increases in composite strength was related to the strong correlation between fiber volume fraction in the composite and vessel strength. Cylinders with high-fiber volume in the hoop layers tended to deliver high-fiber strength. This paper further examines the relationship between fiber volume fraction and fiber strain to failure. Data from unidirectional strand tests and additional vessel tests are presented. A computer program that is based on the thermokinetics of the resin and processing conditions is used to calculate the fiber volume fraction distribution in the filament wound vessel. The strands strength-versus-fiber volume data together with the computer program are used to predict composite vessel burst pressure. In general, good agreement with experimental data is observed.

Experimental evaluation of MEMS strain sensors embedded in composites

Micromechanical in-plane strain sensors were fabricated and embedded in fiber-reinforced laminated composite plates. Three different strain sensor designs were evaluated: a piezoresistive filament fabricated directly on the wafer; a rectangular cantilever beam; and a curved cantilever beam. The cantilever beam designs were off surface structures, attached to the wafer at the root of the beam. The composite plate with embedded sensor was loaded in uniaxial tension and bending. Sensor designs were compared for repeatability, sensitivity and reliability. The effects of wafer geometry and composite plate stiffness were also studied. Typical sensor sensitivity to a uniaxial tensile strain of 0.001 (1000 /spl mu//spl epsi/) ranged from 1.2 to 1.5% of the nominal resistance (dR/R). All sensors responded repeatably to uniaxial tension loading. However, for compressive bending loads imposed on a 2-3-mm-thick composite plate, sensor response varied significantly for all sensor designs. This additional sensitivity can be attributed to local buckling and subsequent out of plane motion in compressive loading. The curved cantilever design, constructed with a hoop geometry, showed the least variation in response to compressive bending loads. All devices survived and yielded repeatable responses to uniaxial tension loads applied over 10 000 cycles.

Processing Thermoplastic Composites in a Press and by Tape Laying—Experimental Results

Tests were conducted to validate the thermoplastic manufacturing process models described by Mantell and Springer. In the tests, APC-2 graphite/PEEK plates were fabricated both in a press and with a specially constructed tape laying apparatus. The tem perature, intimate contact and bonding inside the plates were measured. The data agreed well with the results of the model.

Simulation and fabrication of piezoresistive membrane type MEMS strain sensors

Two piezoresistive (n-polysilicon) strain sensors on a thin Si3N4/SiO2 membrane with improved sensitivity were successfully fabricated by using MEMS technology. The primary difference between the two designs was the number of strips of the polysilicon patterns. For each design, a doped n-polysilicon sensing element was patterned over a thin 3 μm Si3N4/SiO2 membrane. A 1000×1000 μm2 window in the silicon wafer was etched to free the thin membrane from the silicon wafer. The intent of this design was to fabricate a flexible MEMS strain sensor similar in function to a commercial metal foil strain gage. A finite element model of this geometry indicates that strains in the membrane will be higher than strains in the surrounding silicon. The values of nominal resistance of the single strip sensor and the multi-strip sensor were 4.6 and 8.6 kΩ, respectively. To evaluate thermal stability and sensing characteristics, the temperature coefficient of resistance [TCR=(ΔR/R0)/ΔT] and the gage factor [GF=(ΔR/R0)/e] for each design were evaluated. The sensors were heated on a hot plate to measure the TCR. The sensors were embedded in a vinyl ester epoxy plate to determine the sensor sensitivity. The TCR was 7.5×10−4 and 9.5×10−4/°C for the single strip and the multi-strip pattern sensors. The gage factor was as high as 15 (bending) and 13 (tension) for the single strip sensor, and 4 (bending) and 21 (tension) for the multi-strip sensor. The sensitivity of these MEMS sensors is much higher than the sensitivity of commercial metal foil strain gages and strain gage alloys.

A Review of Polymer Materials for Solar Water Heating Systems

This paper summarizes current research aimed at using polymer materials for glazing and heat exchanger components in solar water heating systems. Functional requirements, relevant polymer properties and an approach for selecting polymers are described for each of these components. Glazing must have high transmittance across the solar spectrum and withstand long term exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. Candidate glazing materials were tested outdoors for one year in Golden, Phoenix and Miami, as well as exposed for over 300 days in an accelerated testing facility at a concentration ratio of two at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Measurements of hemispherical transmittance indicate that a 3.35 mm polycarbonate sheet with a thin film acrylic UV screen provides good transmittance without excessive degradation. The primary challenge to designing a polymer heat exchanger is selecting a polymer that is compatible with potable water and capable of withstanding the high pressure and temperature requirements of domestic hot water systems. Polymers certified for hot water applications by the National Sanitation Foundation or currently used in heat exchangers and exhibit good high temperature characteristics were compared on the basis of a merit value (thermal conductance per unit area per dollar) and manufacturers recommendations. High temperature nylon (HTN), polypropylene (PP) and cross linked polypropylene (PEX) are recommended for tube components. For structural components (i.e. headers), glass reinforced high temperature nylon (HTN), polyphthalamide (PPA), polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) and polypropylene (PP) are recommended.

Thermal analysis of polymer heat exchangers for solar water heating : A case study

The feasibility of reducing the cost of solar water heating systems by using polymer heat exchangers is illustrated by comparing thermal performance and cost of heat exchangers made of nylon, cross linked polyethylene (PEX), or copper. Both tube-in-shell heat exchangers and immersed tube banks are considered. For the thermal analysis, the tube geometry and the arrangement of tubes are fixed and the heat transfer surface areas required to provide 3000 and 6000 W are determined. Thermal performance is estimated using published heat transfer correlations. The nylon heat exchanger outperforms the PEX design, primarily because nylon is a stronger material. Consequently, the ratio of diameter to wall thickness required to withstand the operating pressure is greater and the conduction resistance across the polymer wall is less. The cost of nonoptimized nylon heat exchangers is about 80 percent of the cost of heat exchangers made of copper. Significant additional work is required to optimize the tube arrangement and geometry and to validate our initial estimates of thermal and economic performance.

Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Shaped Polymer Tubes: Fin Analysis

The use of polymer tubes for heat exchanger tube bundles is of interest in many applications where corrosion, mineral build-up and/or weight are important. The challenge of overcoming the low thermal conductivity of polymers may be met by using many small-diameter, thin-walled polymer tubes and this route is being pursued by industry. We propose the use of unique shaped tubes that are easily extruded using polymeric materials. The shaped tube are streamlined to reduce form drag yet the inside flow passage is kept circular to maintain the pressure capability of the tube. Special treatment is required to predict convective heat transfer rates because the temperature distribution along the outer surface of the shaped tubes is nonuniform. The average forced convection Nusselt number correlations developed for these noncircular tubes can not be used directly to determine heat transfer rate. Heat transfer rates of shaped tubes are characterised by treating the tubes as a base circular tube to which longitudinal fin(s) are added. Numerical solution of an energy balance on the fin provides the surface temperature distribution and a shaped tube efficiency, which can be used in the same manner as a fin efficiency to determine the outside connective resistance

Polymers for Solar Domestic Hot Water: Long-Term Performance of PB and Nylon 6,6 Tubing in Hot Water

Polymers offer a lightweight, low cost option for solar hot water system components. Key to the success of polymer heat exchanger components will be the long term mechanical performance of the polymer. This is particularly true for heat exchangers in which one of the fluids is pressurized hot water. For domestic hot water systems, polymer components must not fail after many years at a constant pressure (stress levels selected to correspond to 0.55 MPa in a tube) when immersed in 82°C potable water In this paper, the long term performance of two potential heat exchanger materials, polybutylene and nylon 6,6, is presented. Two failure mechanisms are considered: failure caused by material rupture (as indicated by the hydrostatic burst strength) and failure caused by excessive deformation (as indicated by the creep modulus). Hydrostatic burst strength and creep modulus data are presented for each material. Master curves for the creep compliance as a function of time are derived from experimental data. These master curves provide a mechanism for predicting creep modulus as a function of time. A case study is presented in which tubing geometry is selected given the hydrostatic burst strength and creep compliance data. This approach can be used to evaluate properties of candidate polymers and to design polymer components for solar hot water applications.

Natural Convection from a Horizontal Tube Heat Exchanger Immersed in a Tilted Enclosure

Heat transfer rates of a single horizontal tube immersed in a water-filled enclosure tilted at 30 degrees are measured. The results serve as a baseline case for a solar water heating system with a heat exchanger immersed in an integral collector storage. Experiments are conducted for isothermal and stratified enclosures with both adiabatic and uniform heat flux boundary conditions. Natural convection flow in the enclosure is interpreted from measured water temperature distributions. Formation of an appropriate temperature difference that drives natural convection is determined. Correlations for the overall heat transfer coefficient in terms of the Nusselt and Rayleigh numbers are reduced to the form NuD = 0.675RaD 0.25 for 106 ≤ RaD ≤ 108 .Copyright