Susan H. Backhouse

Personal and psychosocial predictors of doping use in physical activity settings: a meta-analysis.

BackgroundThere is a growing body of empirical evidence on demographic and psychosocial predictors of doping intentions and behaviors utilizing a variety of variables and conceptual models. However, to date there has been no attempt to quantitatively synthesize the available evidence and identify the strongest predictors of doping.ObjectivesUsing meta-analysis, we aimed to (i) determine effect sizes of psychological (e.g. attitudes) and social-contextual factors (e.g. social norms), and demographic (e.g. sex and age) variables on doping intentions and use; (ii) examine variables that moderate such effect sizes; and (iii) test a path analysis model, using the meta-analyzed effect sizes, based on variables from the theory of planned behavior (TPB).Data SourcesArticles were identified from online databases, by contacting experts in the field, and searching the World Anti-Doping Agency website.Study Eligibility Criteria and ParticipantsStudies that measured doping behaviors and/or doping intentions, and at least one other demographic, psychological, or social-contextual variable were included. We identified 63 independent datasets.Study Appraisal and Synthesis MethodStudy information was extracted by using predefined data fields and taking into account study quality indicators. A random effects meta-analysis was carried out, correcting for sampling and measurement error, and identifying moderator variables. Path analysis was conducted on a subset of studies that utilized the TPB.ResultsUse of legal supplements, perceived social norms, and positive attitudes towards doping were the strongest positive correlates of doping intentions and behaviors. In contrast, morality and self-efficacy to refrain from doping had the strongest negative association with doping intentions and behaviors. Furthermore, path analysis suggested that attitudes, perceived norms, and self-efficacy to refrain from doping predicted intentions to dope and, indirectly, doping behaviors.LimitationsVarious meta-analyzed effect sizes were based on a small number of studies, which were correlational in nature. This is a limitation of the extant literature.ConclusionsThis review identifies a number of important correlates of doping intention and behavior, many of which were measured via self-reports and were drawn from an extended TPB framework. Future research might benefit from embracing other conceptual models of doping behavior and adopting experimental methodologies that will test some of the identified correlates in an effort to develop targeted anti-doping policies and programs.

Gateway to doping? Supplement use in the context of preferred competitive situations, doping attitude, beliefs, and norms.

Nutritional supplement (NS) use is widespread in sport. This study applied an integrated social cognitive approach to examine doping attitudes, beliefs, and self‐reported doping use behavior across NS users (n = 96) and nonusers (n = 116). Following ethical approval, 212 competitive athletes (age mean = 21.4, s = 4.5; 137 males) completed self‐reported measures of doping‐related social cognitions and behaviors, presented in an online format where completion implied consent. Significantly more NS users (22.9%) reported doping compared with nonusers (6.0%; U = 4628.0, P < 0.05). NS users presented significantly more positive attitudes toward doping (U = 3152.0, P < 0.05) and expressed a significantly greater belief that doping is effective (U = 3152.0, P < 0.05). When presented with the scenario that performance‐enhancing substances are effective and increase the possibility of winning, NS users were significantly more in favor of competing in situations that allow doping (U = 3504.5, P < 0.05). In sum, doping use is three‐and‐a‐half times more prevalent in NS users compared with nonusers. This finding is accompanied by significant differences in doping attitudes, norms, and beliefs. Thus, this article offers support for the gateway hypothesis; athletes who engage in legal performance enhancement practices appear to embody an “at‐risk” group for transition toward doping. Education should be appropriately targeted.

Stressors and affective states among professional rugby union players

The purpose of the present study was to examine (a) the sources of sport and non‐sport stress and their associated symptoms on rest days, training days, and match days and (b) the temporal aspects of sources and symptoms of stress and affective states. Professional male rugby union players (n=16) completed the Daily Analysis of Life Demands in Athletes (DALDA) and the Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL) for 28 days. On match days players reported that few stressors were “worse than normal.” Most stressors were “worse than normal” on training days followed by rest days and more stressors were “worse than normal” on the day after a match than on match days. Further, players reported an unpleasant, low activation state across the three analysis days, suggesting they were in an overtrained state. The findings of this study demonstrate that professional rugby players experience negative affect and a multitude of sport and non‐sport stressors. Early detection of stressors and negative affective states could help prevent symptoms of overtraining and burnout and facilitate optimal training and sporting performance. Coaches and practitioners are encouraged to integrate the DALDA and AD ACL in their training and performance monitoring regimes.

Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise: Impact on affect and perceived exertion

This study was designed to determine the effects of ingesting a carbohydrate (CHO) solution on affective states and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during prolonged intermittent high‐intensity exercise. Seventeen male soccer players completed a prolonged intermittent high‐intensity exercise protocol for 90 min on two occasions, separated by at least 7 days. Participants consumed either a 6.4% CHO (0.6 g/kg body mass (BM)/h) or an artificially sweetened placebo (PLA) solution immediately before (8 mL/kg BM) and every 15 min (3 mL/kg BM) during exercise in a double‐blind, counterbalanced design. Pleasure–displeasure, perceived activation, RPE and plasma glucose concentration was assessed. The results showed that compared with the CHO trial, perceived activation were lower in the placebo trial during the last 30 min of exercise and this was accompanied by lowered plasma glucose concentrations. In the CHO trial, RPE was maintained in the last 30 min of exercise but carried on increasing in the PLA trial. Therefore, CHO ingestion during prolonged high‐intensity exercise appears to elicit an enhanced perceived activation profile that may impact upon task persistence and performance. This finding is in addition to the physiological and metabolic benefits of the exogenous energy supply.

Effects of the glycemic index of breakfast on metabolic responses to brisk walking in females.

Objective:The aim of this study was to examine the metabolic responses during 1 h of brisk walking, 3 h after ingesting high glycemic index (HGI) and moderate glycemic index (MGI) breakfasts.Design and subjects:Six females completed three treadmill walking trials (∼50% [Vdot ]O2 max), separated by at least 1 month. Three hours before walking, they ingested either water or a HGI or MGI breakfast. The MGI breakfast consisted of a mixture of an HGI breakfast cereal and low GI carbohydrate (CHO) foods. The GI values of the HGI and MGI meals were 77 and 51, respectively.Setting:The study took place in the School of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK.Results:In the HGI and MGI trials, plasma glucose and serum insulin concentrations peaked 15 min into the postprandial period. At the onset of exercise, plasma insulin concentrations were twofold higher in the HGI (31.5±7.7 μl U l−1) than in the MGI trial (15.2±1.9 μl U l−1) (P<0.05). However, there were no differences in substrate utilization between the two CHO trials.Conclusion:These results suggest that although the addition of LGI CHO foods to an HGI breakfast cereal reduces the overall GI of the meal, the metabolic response to exercise is similar to that following a breakfast comprised entirely of HGI foods.

Athlete support personnel and anti-doping: Knowledge, attitudes, and ethical stance

Athlete support personnel (ASP) failing to meet responsibilities under the World Anti‐Doping Code risk sanction. It is unclear whether the poor knowledge of responsibilities seen in sports physicians and coaches applies to other ASP (e.g., administrators, chiropractors, family, nutritionists, physiotherapists, psychologists, and trainers). A purposive sample of Australian ASP (n = 292) responded to a survey on knowledge of anti‐doping rules (35 true/false questions), ethical beliefs and practice, and attitudes toward performance enhancement. Some ASP declined to participate, claiming doping was irrelevant to their practice. Physicians were most knowledgeable (30.8/35), with family and trainers the least (26.0/35). ASP reported that improvements were needed to support anti‐doping education (e.g., basis for anti‐doping) and practice (e.g., rules). ASP also had a slightly negative attitude toward performance enhancement. Linear regression showed that being a sports physician, providing support at the elite level, and 15 years of experience influenced knowledge. The results confirm gaps in knowledge, suggesting that stronger engagement with ASP anti‐doping education and practice is needed. Applying the principles of andragogy could help foster active engagement through emphasis on active inquiry, rather than passive reception of content. Future work on the context within which ASP experience anti‐doping is needed, exploring acquisition and translation of knowledge into practice.

Caffeine ingestion, affect and perceived exertion during prolonged cycling.

Caffeines metabolic and performance effects have been widely reported. However, caffeines effects on affective states during prolonged exercise are unknown. Therefore, this was examined in the present study. Following an overnight fast and in a randomised, double-blind, counterbalanced design, twelve endurance trained male cyclists performed 90 min of exercise at 70% VO(₂ max) 1h after ingesting 6 mg kg⁻¹ BM of caffeine (CAF) or placebo (PLA). Dimensions of affect and perceived exertion were assessed at regular intervals. During exercise, pleasure ratings were better maintained (F(₃,₃₈)=4.99, P < 0.05) in the CAF trial compared to the PLA trial with significantly higher ratings at 15, 30 and 75 min (all P < 0.05). Perceived exertion increased (F(₃,₃₈) = 19.86, P < 0.01) throughout exercise and values, overall, were significantly lower (F(₁,₁₁) = 9.26, P < 0.05) in the CAF trial compared to the PLA trial. Perceived arousal was elevated during exercise but did not differ between trials. Overall, the results suggest that a moderate dose of CAF ingested 1h prior to exercise maintains a more positive subjective experience during prolonged cycling. This observation may partially explain caffeines ergogenic effects.

The influence of water ingestion during prolonged exercise on affect

This study examined the influence of water ingestion on affect and perceived exertion during sub-maximal running. Fifteen endurance-trained men performed two counterbalanced 90-min treadmill runs at 70% V O2 max. No fluid was ingested during one trial (NF-trial), whereas a single water bolus (5.0 mLkg(-1) body mass) was ingested immediately preexercise and every 20 min during exercise (2.0 mLkg(-1) bodymass) in a fluid replacement trial (FR-trial). Affect and perceived exertion were repeatedly assessed and physiological changes monitored. Perceived exertion and heart rate increased significantly during the run but there were no differences between conditions. Such similarities were not reflected in the pleasure-displeasure ratings, which were maintained above baseline levels during exercise in the FR-trial but declined below baseline during the NF-trial. A significant postexercise improvement in rated pleasure-displeasure was found only in the FR-trial, leading to significantly higher ratings of pleasure-displeasure during the recovery period compared to the NF-trial. Self-reported Energy was also enhanced postexercise only in the FR-trial. Body mass decrease was significantly larger and thirst ratings were significantly higher in the NF-trial compared to the FR-trial. In summary, water ingestion attenuated the during-exercise decrease in pleasure-displeasure and elicited an improvement after prolonged, submaximal running.

Effect of galactose ingestion before and during exercise on substrate oxidation, postexercise satiety, and subsequent energy intake in females.

Objective: To examine the effects of consuming a galactose carbohydrate (CHO) drink on substrate oxidation, postexercise satiety, and subsequent energy intake. Methods: Nine recreationally active eumenorrheic females undertook 3 trials, each consisting of running for 60 minutes at 65% VO2peak followed immediately by a 90-minute rest period. Prior to (300 ml) and at 15-minute intervals during exercise (150 ml), participants consumed either a glucose (GLU: GI 89) or galactose (GAL: GI 20) drink, each of which contained 45 g of CHO, or an artificially sweetened placebo (PLA). Following the rest period, participants were provided with an ad libitum test lunch and asked to record food intake for the remainder of the day. Results: Plasma glucose was significantly greater throughout exercise and rest following the GLU trial compared with the GAL and PLA trials (P < 0.05); however there were no differences in CHO oxidation. Hunger was significantly lower (P < 0.05) throughout the GAL compared to the GLU and PLA trials. There were no significant differences between trials for energy intake during the postexercise meal. Overall net energy balance for the 24 hours was negative in both the GAL (−162 ± 115 kcal; P < 0.05 vs GLU) and PLA trials (−49 ± 160 kcal). Conclusions: Results demonstrate that ingesting a solution containing GAL before and during exercise can positively impact postexercise satiety and energy balance throughout the day, compared to a more readily available and widely consumed form of CHO. Despite this, there appears to be no apparent benefit in consuming a CHO beverage on fuel utilization for this moderate exercise intensity and duration.

The search for size: a doping risk factor in adolescent rugby?

Rugby Union is currently under the spotlight with 18 individuals from the UK currently banned from the sport for committing an anti-doping rule violation(s). Notably, the vast majority of these cases arise from the amateur and/or schoolboy game.1 Beyond the UK, 12 of 52 South African schoolboy rugby players recently returned positive tests for using anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS).2 The drive for players becoming bigger, stronger and faster may be a powerful determinant of these worrisome developments. With this motivation in mind, is it entirely coincidental that such concerns accompany evidence of increased doping that yields these biological changes? The emphasis on physical attributes within rugby tracks its evolution. For example, the match demands (eg, number of collisions) have increased since professionalisation of the game in the 1990s, accompanied by progressive increases in the size and physical attributes of players.3 A French study4 highlighted the importance of body size (height and body mass) in discriminating between successful and less successful teams in the rugby union World …