Susan Hallam

The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people

This paper reviews the empirical evidence relating to the effects of active engagement with music on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. It draws on research using the most advanced technologies to study the brain, in addition to quantitative and qualitative psychological and educational studies. It explains how musical skills may transfer to other activities if the processes involved are similar. It explores the evidence relating to the impact of musical skills on language development, literacy, numeracy, measures of intelligence, general attainment, creativity, fine motor co-ordination, concentration, self-confidence, emotional sensitivity, social skills, team work, self-discipline, and relaxation. It suggests that the positive effects of engagement with music on personal and social development only occur if it is an enjoyable and rewarding experience. This has implications for the quality of the teaching. Le pouvoir de la musique: son impact sur les développements intellectuel, social et personnel chez les enfants et les jeunes Cet article relate l’évidence empirique des effets d’un engagement musical actif axé sur les développements intellectuel, social et personnel procurent aux enfants et aux jeunes. Cet article fait état de la technologie la plus avancée utilisée pour étudier le cerveau en complément aux recherches quantitatives et qualitatives menées en psychologie et en éducation. Il s’agit d’expliquer comment les habiletés musicales peuvent être transférées à d’autres activités si le processus impliqué est le même. Il est aussi question d’explorer l’impact évident en lien au développement du langage, la littératie, la numératie, les mesures de l’intelligence, les réalisations globales, la créativité, la motricité fine, la concentration, la confiance en soi, la sensibilité émotionnelle, les habiletés sociales, le travail d’équipe, l’autodiscipline et la relaxation. Les effets positifs d’un engagement dans la musique sur les plans du développement personnel et du développement social sont présents uniquement lorsque l’expérience et agréable et gratifiante. La qualité de l’enseignement est également sujette à ce constat. Die Macht der Musik: Ihr Einfluss auf die intellektuelle, soziale und persönliche Entwicklung von Kindern und Jugendlichen Dieser Beitrag überprüft die empirische Bedeutung von Effekten aktiven Umgangs mit Musik auf die intellektuelle, soziale und persönliche Entwicklung von Kindern und Jugendlichen. Er zieht Ergebnisse der Hirnforschung heran, die modernste Technologien einsetzt, ergänzt durch quantitative und qualitative Studien aus dem Bereich der Psychologie und Pädagogik. Es wird klar, wie musikalische Fertigkeiten auf andere Tätigkeiten übertragen werden können, wenn es sich dabei um ähnliche Vorgänge handelt. Darüber hinaus erkundet der Beitrag die Bedeutung der Musik für die Sprachentwicklung, die Lese- und Rechenfähigkeit, für Intelligenz, allgemeine Leistungsfähigkeit, Kreativität, feinmotorische Koordination, Konzentration, Selbstvertrauen, emotionale Sensibilität, Sozialverhalten, Teamfähigkeit, Selbstdisziplin und Entspannung. Es deutet manches darauf hin, dass sich positive Effekte der Beschäftigung mit Musik auf die soziale und persönliche Entwicklung nur dann zeigen, wenn es sich um eine erfreuliche und lohnende Erfahrung handelt. Dies hat dann Auswirkungen auf die Qualität der Lehre. El poder de la música: su impacto en el desarrollo intelectual, social y personal de niños y jóvenes Este artículo hace una revisión de las evidencias empíricas de los efectos de la implicación activa de niños y jóvenes con la música sobre su desarrollo personal, social e intelectual. Parte de una investigación en la que se usaron las tecnologías más avanzadas para estudiar el cerebro, además de estudios educativos y psicológicos cuantitativos y cualitativos. Explica cómo las capacidades musicales pueden transferirse a otras actividades si los procesos puestos en juego son similares. Explora las evidencias relacionadas con el impacto del desarrollo del lenguaje, alfabetización, cálculo, medidas de la inteligencia, logros globales, creatividad, coordinación motriz fina, concentración, autoconfianza, sensibilidad emocional, capacidades sociales, trabajo en equipo, autodisciplina, y relajación. Sugiere que los efectos positivos de la implicación con la música sobre el desarrollo personal y social sólo ocurre si es una experiencia agradable y gratificante, con las consiguientes implicaciones para la calidad de la enseñanza.

The Effects of Background Music on Primary School Pupils' Task Performance

Research on the effects of background music has a long history. Early work was not embedded within a theoretical framework, was often poorly conceptualised and produced equivocal findings. This paper reports two studies exploring the effects of music, perceived to be calming and relaxing, on performance in arithmetic and on a memory task in children aged 10-12. The calming music led to better performance on both tasks when compared with a no-music condition. Music perceived as arousing, aggressive and unpleasant disrupted performance on the memory task and led to a lower level of reported altruistic behaviour by the children. This suggests that the effects of music on task performance are mediated by arousal and mood rather than affecting cognition directly. The findings are discussed in relation to possible practical applications in the primary school and the home.

The Development of Expertise in Young Musicians: Strategy Use, Knowledge Acquisition and Individual Diversity

This research considered the relationships between strategy use and the development of expertise in instrumental music taking into account individual differences. Fifty-five string players, with standards ranging from beginner to music college entrants, aged 6-18 were recorded for a period of 10 minutes practising a short piece of appropriate standard, which they then performed. They were also interviewed regarding their approaches to practice. The taped performance was assessed by two independent judges, marks being awarded for different aspects of performance. The findings indicated that effective strategy use in practice depended on the acquisition of appropriate aural schemata to facilitate the monitoring of progress and correction of mistakes. Strategy development was closely related to the developing level of expertise. Case studies examining the prepared performance of students at different graded examination levels, but obtaining different marks in these examinations, revealed a wide range of possible contributory factors. Multi-dimensional rather than single dimensional explanations of levels of attainment and quality of performance would seem to be required.

Raising Standards: Is ability grouping the answer?

Debate about the selection and grouping of pupils by ability has been rekindled in the drive to raise standards. In this paper, we review the literature on ability grouping and its effects on academic and non-academic outcomes for pupils, including self-esteem, attitudes towards school, and alienation. In addition, we consider aspects of the school environment that may mediate the influence of organisational grouping on pupil outcomes. The review refers extensively to British research but draws on international work where appropriate. It is argued that a return to a national system of selection and structured grouping is unlikely to raise standards. Some alternatives to ability grouping are put forward for consideration.

Musical Motivation: Towards a model synthesising the research

This article explores motivation to participate in music making activities. It examines historical and current theories of motivation and sets out a model describing the way that the characteristics of the individual including, personality, self-concept and personal goals interact with the environment to influence motivation and subsequent behaviour. The environment may include culture and sub-cultures, society, time, place, institutions, family and peers and the rewards and punishments that these offer. The article then explores research relating to motivation to actively participate in music. This supports the notion that musical motivation is determined by complex interactions between the individual and the environment within which they find themselves. The article concludes with a consideration of directions for future research.

Professional Musicians' Approaches to the Learning and Interpretation of Music

The purpose of this study was to investigate the approaches of professional musicians to the learning and interpretation of music. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 practising freelance musicians spanning a wide range of age and experience and encompassing most of the traditional orchestral instruments. The findings were considered in relation to current psychological models of adult learning and intellectual development. Pasks (1976) model of learning provided appropriate categorisations for many of the statements made by the musicians, although intuitive and analytic approaches were also identified. In addition, considerable individual diversity was identified in the level of spontaneity or planning considered acceptable in relation to performance. The intellectual developmental scheme proposed by Perry (1970) also provided an appropriate basis for considering differential levels of musical development. Educational implications and criteria for the formulation of future models to account for the learning and interpretation of music are discussed.

Parent–teacher–pupil interactions in instrumental music tuition: a literature review

This paper considers the literature that may inform our understanding of parent–teacher–pupil interactions in instrumental music. It draws on research directly concerned with instrumental music learning and that from the wider psychological, sociological and educational literature concerned with conceptions of effective learning and teaching; conceptions of effective parenting; and dimensions of interpersonal relationships. Finally, a systemic, dynamic model is proposed which may serve to guide future research in the field.

Ability Grouping in English Secondary Schools: Effects on Attainment in English, Mathematics and Science

The impact of ability grouping on attainment is examined in a cohort of year-9 pupils in 45 mixed secondary comprehensive schools, representing a variety of grouping practices. Analyses using multilevel models reveal an effect of the extent of setting experienced by pupils on progress in mathematics, but not in English or science. In mathematics, pupils attaining higher levels at the end of year 6 make more progress in sets, whereas pupils attaining lower levels make more progress in mixed ability classes. Placement in a high, middle or low set also has a significant effect on mathematics attainment. Possible explanations are discussed and educational implications considered.

Music Listening and Cognitive Abilities in 10- and 11-Year-Olds: The Blur Effect

Abstract: The spatial abilities of a large sample of 10 and 11 year olds were tested after they listened to contemporary pop music, music composed by Mozart, or a discussion about the present experiment. After being assigned at random to one of the three listening experiences, each child completed two tests of spatial abilities. Performance on one of the tests (square completion) did not differ as a function of the listening experience, but performance on the other test (paper folding) was superior for children who listened to popular music compared to the other two groups. These findings are consistent with the view that positive benefits of music listening on cognitive abilities are most likely to be evident when the music is enjoyed by the listener.

A conceptual framework for understanding musical performance anxiety

Most research on musical performance anxiety has considered this in relation to the internal characteristics of the performer, the extent of their preparedness for the performance, and factors in the immediate performing environment. The approach to its alleviation has generally been clinical in nature. Little research has been situated within an explicit overarching conceptual framework. This article proposes a theoretical framework that portrays anxiety within a musical performance context as a process that has an explicit time dimension (pre-, during- and post-performance). The model illustrates the likely processes that occur once a performer agrees to participate in a particular performance and explains how these might give rise to either maladaptive or adaptive forms of performance anxiety. The potential longer-term effects on the performer are also discussed. A detailed description of the model and the theories behind its development is followed by a consideration of models implications and potential usefulness for both research and education.