Susan Houge Mackenzie

Expanding the flow model in adventure activities: a reversal theory perspective.

Abstract This study integrated flow theory and reversal theory perspectives to investigate a potential range of flow states amongst adventure participants in a sequence of two studies. Study one was conducted with expert (n = 6) adventure participants via retrospective interviews, while study two collected prospective data from novice whitewater riversurfers (n = 10) via waterproof-surveys and head-mounted video cameras. These methods were used to evaluate previous conjectures that distinct ‘serious’ (telic) and ‘playful’ (paratelic) flow states may occur in adventure activities and to identify key characteristics which may underpin distinct flow states. Results highlighted qualitative differences amongst flow states, as well as suggesting that flow research in adventurous pursuits could benefit from the integration of reversal theory constructs.

A (Mis)guided Adventure Tourism Experience: An Autoethnographic Analysis of Mountaineering in Bolivia

Due to the fast growing nature of the adventure tourism industry and the commodification of adventure activities therein, improved understanding of adventure tourism experiences and mountaineer adventure tourists in particular is needed. In an effort to move beyond traditional market segmentation approaches, this study analysed autoethnographical data from an adventure tourism mountaineering experience in Bolivia. This autoethnographic method facilitated a deeper understanding of mountaineering adventure tourism experiences and allowed for a multifaceted view of risk perceptions that has often been neglected in the literature. Data were analysed with a robust psychological framework (i.e. reversal theory) that was used to explain: (a) paradoxical desires for risk and safety in adventure tourism and (b) emotional and motivational fluctuations experienced by mountaineer adventure tourists. The importance of creating a ‘protective frame’ to ensure enjoyable experiences was identified, along with key factors that influenced this frame (e.g. guide behaviour, equipment, safety management procedures, other tourists, environmental conditions). Implications for adventure tourism practitioners are discussed, along with theoretical analyses. The utility of autoethnographic research in adventure settings, particularly in conjunction with established psychological theory, is highlighted and suggested as a fruitful avenue through which to enhance the adventure tourism discourse.

The Multiphasic and Dynamic Nature of Flow in Adventure Experiences

Abstract This study evaluated phases of adventure experiences by identifying flow and reversal theory states over a 3-day white-water river surfing course. Data were collected with novice river surfers (n = 5) via in-depth qualitative interviews using head-mounted video cameras. Findings suggested that “opposing” experiential phases (i.e., telic and paratelic) may be symbiotic in adventure experiences and may facilitate flow experiences. These results may account for the dynamic nature of enjoyment, flow, and motivational states within adventure experiences. Future research should seek to validate the phasic models presented herein and evaluate their potential applicability to other adventurous activities.

Unifying Psychology and Experiential Education: Toward an Integrated Understanding of "Why" It Works.

This article examines the significance of psychology to experiential education (EE) and critiques EE models that have developed in isolation from larger psychological theories and developments. Following a review of literature and current issues, select areas of psychology are explored with reference to experiential learning processes. The state of knowledge and emerging paradigms in positive psychology, self-determination theory, flow theory, and neuropsychology are explored in an effort to better understand the mechanisms underpinning experiential learning and program development. Implications for practitioners and future research directions are discussed in relation to these emerging bodies of knowledge.

Adventurous physical activity environments: A mainstream intervention for mental health

Adventurous physical activity has traditionally been considered the pastime of a small minority of people with deviant personalities or characteristics that compel them to voluntarily take great risks purely for the sake of thrills and excitement. An unintended consequence of these traditional narratives is the relative absence of adventure activities in mainstream health and well-being discourses and in large-scale governmental health initiatives. However, recent research has demonstrated that even the most extreme adventurous physical activities are linked to enhanced psychological health and well-being outcomes. These benefits go beyond traditional ‘character building’ concepts and emphasize more positive frameworks that rely on the development of effective environmental design. Based on emerging research, this paper demonstrates why adventurous physical activity should be considered a mainstream intervention for positive mental health. Furthermore, the authors argue that understanding how to design environments that effectively encourage appropriate adventure should be considered a serious addition to mainstream health and well-being discourse.

Head-mounted cameras and stimulated recall in qualitative sport research

There are a number of innovative procedures available for use in qualitative research, including observation, note-taking and verbal protocol techniques. This paper highlights the potential usefulness of stimulated recall as an innovative technique for use in qualitative research in sport and possibly exercise. Specifically, it focuses on video footage obtained from head-mounted cameras for use in stimulated recall during post-event interviews. Examples of research studies carried out in simulation training with fire and emergency personnel and with leisure participants in a whitewater adventure setting, are used to illustrate how stimulated recall can be utilised effectively in practice. Participants in a river-surfing course completed daily qualitative semi-structured interviews, facilitated by footage from head-mounted video cameras. The cameras were worn throughout the course while participants were in the water. The use of the head-mounted equipment and video-footage as stimulated recall in the study and preliminary findings about the procedure are described. Finally, a number of advantages and disadvantages of head-mounted camera and stimulated recall procedures in general are discussed.

Psychology and the Extreme Sport Experience

The term ‘extreme sports’ has become synonymous with a variety of nontraditional adventure experiences. Terminologies such as ‘whiz sports’, ‘free sports’, ‘adventure sports’, ‘lifestyle sports’, ‘action sports’, ‘alternative sports’ and ‘extreme sports’ are often used interchangeably. One disadvantage of this proliferation is that accompanying definitions are imprecise or misleading. For example, white-water kayaking on grade two of the universal grading system can feel exciting and adventurous, but the results of an accident or mistake would be relatively innocuous in comparison to the consequences of an accident or mistake on grade six water. At the highest levels of difficulty, death is a real possibility. In addition to these semantic issues, theories used to explain extreme sport participation typically portray participants as risk or adrenaline seekers. Theorists have explained participants’ motivations through a range of analytical frameworks, including edgework, sensation seeking, psychoanalysis, neotribe or subcultural formation and masculinity theory. These risk-focused accounts are often formulated by non-participants and supported by theory-driven methodologies that may not fully capture the actual lived experiences of extreme sport participants. Problems with traditional approaches to studying extreme sports include (1) research revealing characteristics and statistics that are incongruent with traditional risk and sensation-seeking accounts, (2) a myopic focus on risk-seeking that largely ignores other key motives and benefits and (3) theory-driven perspectives that do not fully reflect the lived experiences of participants. In this chapter, the authors explore the psychology of extreme sports with the aim of illuminating additional perspectives on extreme sport experiences and motivations beyond risk and sensation seeking.

Positive motivational experience over a three-day outdoor adventure trek in Peru

ABSTRACT This study investigated the motivational and emotional experience of an experienced outdoor activity participant during a three-day guided adventure trek in Colca Canyon, Peru. The research adopted a qualitative autoethnographic approach which provided unique data in the form of diary entries, experiential diagrams, field notes and email content. An established theoretical model (reversal theory) was used to analyse dynamic psychological states and emotions that occurred in relation to changing circumstances during the trek. Overall, the data indicated increased positive motivational experience over the course of the adventure trek. Achieving trekking goals, experiencing scenery, views and the natural environment, and social interaction with other trekkers, guides and local people were key aspects found to positively influence the subjective outdoor leisure experience. The present autoethnographic study provided an in-depth prospective account of the participant’s increasingly pleasant positive experience as the trek advanced.

‘I don’t want to die. That’s not why I do it at all’: multifaceted motivation, psychological health, and personal development in BASE jumping

ABSTRACT This study explored a veteran female BASE jumpers experiences in relation to (a) participation phases, motivations and emotions; (b) risk perceptions and psychological management strategies; (c) psychological effects of accidents and fatalities on risk appraisals and her protective frame; and (d) psychological health and personal development benefits of extreme sport participation. Interview data revealed multifaceted motivations for BASE jumping that evolved over time. Emotion induction and pleasant psychological experiences associated with BASE jumping contributed to psychological health, well-being and personal development, while coping with negative experiences and dynamic risk perceptions fostered mental strength and resilience. Continued participation following negative experiences highlighted the importance of protective frames in facilitating positive extreme sport experiences. Findings suggested that BASE jumping motivations and experiences may be more complex and multifaceted than currently conceptualized, and that extreme sport has the potential to promote psychological health and personal development in ways that are often overlooked.

Conceptualizing adventurous nature sport: A positive psychology perspective

ABSTRACT Research and public policy has long supported links between traditional sports and well-being. However, adventurous nature sport literature has primarily focused on performance issues and deficit models of risk or sensation-seeking. This standpoint is limited by assumptions that participation is: (a) dependent on personality structures; (b) solely motivated by risk-taking and hedonism; (c) only attractive or accessible to a narrow demographic; and (d) widely perceived as dysfunctional or deviant. In contrast, recent research suggests that adventurous nature sports provide unique benefits due to their context. This paper critically assesses the validity of dominant perspectives against emerging literature to illustrate how nature sports can be conceptualized through a positive psychology lens as well-being activities that facilitate both hedonic and eudaimonic outcomes. The significance of this perspective is that nature sports may become an important consideration when designing health and well-being interventions for both people and the planet.