Susan K. Hanson

CC or CO Bond Cleavage in a Phenolic Lignin Model Compound: Selectivity Depends on Vanadium Catalyst†

The aerobic oxidation of a phenolic lignin model compound with a vanadium catalyst results in the oxidative cleavage of the C-C bond between the aryl ring and the adjacent hydroxy-substituted carbon atom. Labeling experiments indicate key mechanistic differences to a previously reported related C-O bond cleavage reaction. The selectivity in C-C versus C-O bond cleavage depends on the choice of the vanadium catalyst.

Understanding the Mechanisms of Cobalt-Catalyzed Hydrogenation and Dehydrogenation Reactions

Cobalt(II) alkyl complexes of aliphatic PNP pincer ligands have been synthesized and characterized. The cationic cobalt(II) alkyl complex [(PNHP(Cy))Co(CH2SiMe3)]BAr(F)4 (4) (PNHP(Cy) = bis[(2-dicyclohexylphosphino)ethyl]amine) is an active precatalyst for the hydrogenation of olefins and ketones and the acceptorless dehydrogenation of alcohols. To elucidate the possible involvement of the N-H group on the pincer ligand in the catalysis via a metal-ligand cooperative interaction, the reactivities of 4 and [(PNMeP(Cy))Co(CH2SiMe3)]BAr(F)4 (7) were compared. Complex 7 was found to be an active precatalyst for the hydrogenation of olefins. In contrast, no catalytic activity was observed using 7 as a precatalyst for the hydrogenation of acetophenone under mild conditions. For the acceptorless dehydrogenation of 1-phenylethanol, complex 7 displayed similar activity to complex 4, affording acetophenone in high yield. When the acceptorless dehydrogenation of 1-phenylethanol with precatalyst 4 was monitored by NMR spectroscopy, the formation of the cobalt(III) acetylphenyl hydride complex [(PNHP(Cy))Co(III)(κ(2)-O,C-C6H4C(O)CH3)(H)]BAr(F)4 (13) was detected. Isolated complex 13 was found to be an effective catalyst for the acceptorless dehydrogenation of alcohols, implicating 13 as a catalyst resting state during the alcohol dehydrogenation reaction. Complex 13 catalyzed the hydrogenation of styrene but showed no catalytic activity for the room temperature hydrogenation of acetophenone. These results support the involvement of metal-ligand cooperativity in the room temperature hydrogenation of ketones but not the hydrogenation of olefins or the acceptorless dehydrogenation of alcohols. Mechanisms consistent with these observations are presented for the cobalt-catalyzed hydrogenation of olefins and ketones and the acceptorless dehydrogenation of alcohols.

Cobalt-Catalyzed Acceptorless Alcohol Dehydrogenation: Synthesis of Imines from Alcohols and Amines

A cobalt catalyst has been developed for the acceptorless dehydrogenation of alcohols and applied to synthesize imines from alcohols and amines. Deuterium labeling studies suggest that the reaction proceeds by an initial reversible alcohol dehydrogenation step involving a cobalt hydride intermediate.

Aerobic oxidation of lignin models using a base metal vanadium catalyst.

Dipicolinate vanadium(V) complexes oxidize lignin model complexes pinacol monomethyl ether (A), 2-phenoxyethanol (B), 1-phenyl-2-phenoxyethanol (C), and 1,2-diphenyl-2-methoxyethanol (D). With substrates having C-H bonds adjacent to the alcohol moiety (B-D), the C-H bond is broken in pyridine-d(5) solvent, yielding 2-phenoxyacetaldehyde from B, 2-phenoxyacetophenone from C, and benzoin methyl ether from D. In DMSO-d(6) solvent the reaction is slower, and both C-H and C-C bond cleavage products are observed for D. The vanadium(IV) products of these reactions have been identified and characterized. Catalytic oxidation of C and D has been demonstrated using air and (dipic)V(O)O(i)Pr. For both substrates, the C-C bond between the alcohol and ether groups is broken in the catalytic oxidation. 1-Phenyl-2-phenoxyethanol is oxidized to a mixture of phenol, formic acid, benzoic acid, and 2-methoxyacetophenone. The products of oxidation of 1,2-diphenyl-2-methoxyethanol depend on the solvent; in DMSO benzaldehyde and methanol are the major products, while benzoic acid and methyl benzoate are the major products obtained in pyridine solvent. Phenyl substituents on the model complex facilitate the oxidation, with relative rates of oxidation D > C > B.

Mild and selective vanadium-catalyzed oxidation of benzylic, allylic, and propargylic alcohols using air.

Transition metal-catalyzed aerobic alcohol oxidation is an attractive method for the synthesis of carbonyl compounds, but most catalytic systems feature precious metals and require pure oxygen. The vanadium complex (HQ)(2)V(V)(O)(O(i)Pr) (2 mol %, HQ = 8-quinolinate) and NEt(3) (10 mol %) catalyze the oxidation of benzylic, allylic, and propargylic alcohols with air. The catalyst can be easily prepared under air using commercially available reagents and is effective for a wide range of primary and secondary alcohols.

Investigations of Iridium-Mediated Reversible C−H Bond Cleavage: Characterization of a 16-Electron Iridium(III) Methyl Hydride Complex

New iridium complexes of a tridentate pincer ligand, 2,6-bis(di-tert-butylphosphinito)pyridine (PONOP), have been prepared and used in the study of hydrocarbon C-H bond activation. Intermolecular oxidative addition of a benzene C-H bond was directly observed with [(PONOP)Ir(I)(cyclooctene)][PF(6)] at ambient temperature, resulting in a cationic five-coordinate iridium(III) phenyl hydride product. Protonation of the (PONOP)Ir(I) methyl complex yielded the corresponding iridium(III) methyl hydride cation, a rare five-coordinate, 16-valence electron transition metal alkyl hydride species which was characterized by X-ray diffraction. Kinetic studies of C-H bond coupling and reductive elimination reactions from the five-coordinate complexes have been carried out. Exchange NMR spectroscopy measurements established a barrier of 17.8(4) kcal/mol (22 degrees C) for H-C(aryl) bond coupling in the iridium(III) phenyl hydride cation and of 9.3(4) kcal/mol (-105 degrees C) for the analogous H-C(alkyl) coupling in the iridium(III) methyl hydride cation. The origin of the higher barrier of H-C(aryl) relative to H-C(alkyl) bond coupling is proposed to be influenced by a hindered rotation about the Ir-C(aryl) bond, a result of the sterically demanding PONOP ligand.

Aerobic Oxidation of Pinacol by Vanadium(V) Dipicolinate Complexes: Evidence for Reduction to Vanadium(III)

The reactivity of vanadium complexes bearing the ligand dipicolinic acid (H(2)dipic) with alcohols has been explored. Dipic vanadium complexes are able to catalyze the aerobic oxidative C-C bond cleavage of pinacol. Reaction under anaerobic conditions allowed for isolation of a V(III) mu-oxo dimer, supporting the involvement of V(III) in aerobic oxidation reactions. Stoichiometric oxidation of unactivated aliphatic alcohols has also been observed, with oxidation of cyclobutanol producing cyclobutanone in 93% yield. The absence of ring-opening products in this reaction provides further support for the involvement of V(III) intermediates.

Knocking on Wood: Base Metal Complexes as Catalysts for Selective Oxidation of Lignin Models and Extracts

This work began as part of a biomass conversion catalysis project with UC Santa Barbara funded by the first NSF Chemical Bonding Center, CATSB. Recognizing that catalytic aerobic oxidation of diol C-C bonds could potentially be used to break down lignocellulose, we began to synthesize oxovanadium complexes and explore their fundamental reactivity. Of course there were theories regarding the oxidation mechanism, but our mechanistic studies soon revealed a number of surprises of the type that keep all chemists coming back to the bench! We realized that these reactions were also exciting in that they actually used the oxygen-on-every-carbon property of biomass-derived molecules to control the selectivity of the oxidation. When we found that these oxovanadium complexes tended to convert sugars predominantly to formic acid and carbon dioxide, we replaced one of the OH groups with an ether and entered the dark world of lignin chemistry. In this Account, we summarize results from our collaboration and from our individual labs. In particular, we show that oxidation selectivity (C-C vs C-O bond cleavage) of lignin models using air and vanadium complexes depends on the ancillary ligands, the reaction solvent, and the substrate structure (i.e., phenolic vs non-phenolic). Selected vanadium complexes in the presence of added base serve as effective alcohol oxidation catalysts via a novel base-assisted dehydrogenation pathway. In contrast, copper catalysts effect direct C-C bond cleavage of these lignin models, presumably through a radical pathway. The most active vanadium catalyst exhibits unique activity for the depolymerization of organosolv lignin. After Weckhuysens excellent 2010 review on lignin valorization, the number of catalysis studies and approaches on both lignin models and extracts has expanded rapidly. Today we are seeing new start-ups and lignin production facilities sprouting up across the globe as we all work to prove wrong the old pulp and paper chemists adage: you can make anything from lignin except money!

Aerobic Oxidation Reactions Catalyzed by Vanadium Complexes of Bis(Phenolate) Ligands

Vanadium(V) complexes of the tridentate bis(phenolate)pyridine ligand H(2)BPP (H(2)BPP = 2,6-(HOC(6)H(2)-2,4-(t)Bu(2))(2)NC(5)H(3)) and the bis(phenolate)amine ligand H(2)BPA (H(2)BPA = N,N-bis(2-hydroxy-4,5-dimethylbenzyl)propylamine) have been synthesized and characterized. The ability of the complexes to mediate the oxidative C-C bond cleavage of pinacol was tested. Reaction of the complex (BPP)V(V)(O)(O(i)Pr) (4) with pinacol afforded the monomeric vanadium(IV) product (BPP)V(IV)(O)(HO(i)Pr) (6) and acetone. Vanadium(IV) complex 6 was oxidized rapidly by air at room temperature in the presence of NEt(3), yielding the vanadium(V) cis-dioxo complex [(BPP)V(V)(O)(2)]HNEt(3). Complex (BPA)V(V)(O)(O(i)Pr) (5) reacted with pinacol at room temperature, to afford acetone and the vanadium(IV) dimer [(BPA)V(IV)(O)(HO(i)Pr)](2). Complexes 4 and 5 were evaluated as catalysts for the aerobic oxidation of 4-methoxybenzyl alcohol and arylglycerol β-aryl ether lignin model compounds. Although both 4 and 5 catalyzed the aerobic oxidation of 4-methoxybenzyl alcohol, complex 4 was found to be a more active and robust catalyst for oxidation of the lignin model compounds. The catalytic activities and selectivities of the bis(phenolate) complexes are compared to previously reported catalysts.

Mechanism of Alcohol Oxidation by Dipicolinate Vanadium(V): Unexpected Role of Pyridine

Dipicolinate vanadium(V) alkoxide complexes (dipic)V(V)(O)(OR) (OR = isopropoxide (1), n-butanoxide (2), cyclobutanoxide (3), and α-tert-butylbenzylalkoxide (4)) react with pyridine to afford vanadium(IV) and 0.5 equiv of an aldehyde or ketone product. The role of pyridine in the reaction has been investigated. Both NMR and X-ray crystallography experiments indicate that pyridine coordinates to 1, which is in equilibrium with (dipic)V(V)(O)(O(i)Pr)(pyr) (1-Pyr). Kinetic studies of the alcohol oxidation suggest a pathway where the rate-limiting step is bimolecular and involves attack of pyridine on the C-H bond of the isopropoxide ligand of 1 or 1-Pyr. The oxidations of mechanistic probes cyclobutanol and α-tert-butylbenzylalcohol support a two-electron pathway proceeding through a vanadium(III) intermediate. The alcohol oxidation reaction is promoted by more basic pyridines and facilitated by electron-withdrawing substituents on the dipicolinate ligand. The involvement of base in the elementary alcohol oxidation step observed for the dipicolinate system is an unprecedented mechanism for vanadium-mediated alcohol oxidation and suggests new ways to tune reactivity and selectivity of vanadium catalysts.