Susan K. Schultz

Definition and description of schizophrenia in the DSM-5

Although dementia praecox or schizophrenia has been considered a unique disease for over a century, its definitions and boundaries have changed over this period and its etiology and pathophysiology remain elusive. Despite changing definitions, DSM-IV schizophrenia is reliably diagnosed, has fair validity and conveys useful clinical information. Therefore, the essence of the broad DSM-IV definition of schizophrenia is retained in DSM-5. The clinical manifestations are extremely diverse, however, with this heterogeneity being poorly explained by the DSM-IV clinical subtypes and course specifiers. Additionally, the boundaries of schizophrenia are imprecisely demarcated from schizoaffective disorder and other diagnostic categories and its special emphasis on Schneiderian first-rank symptoms appears misplaced. Changes in the definition of schizophrenia in DSM-5 seek to address these shortcomings and incorporate the new information about the nature of the disorder accumulated over the past two decades. Specific changes in its definition include elimination of the classic subtypes, addition of unique psychopathological dimensions, clarification of cross-sectional and longitudinal course specifiers, elimination of special treatment of Schneiderian first-rank symptoms, better delineation of schizophrenia from schizoaffective disorder, and clarification of the relationship of schizophrenia to catatonia. These changes should improve diagnosis and characterization of individuals with schizophrenia and facilitate measurement-based treatment and concurrently provide a more useful platform for research that will elucidate its nature and permit a more precise future delineation of the schizophrenias.

Effects of Smoking Marijuana on Brain Perfusion and Cognition

The effects of smoking marijuana on regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) and cognitive performance were assessed in 12 recreational users in a double-blinded, placebo-controlled study. PET with [15Oxygen]-labeled water ([15O]H2O) was used to measure rCBF before and after smoking of marijuana and placebo cigarettes, as subjects repeatedly performed an auditory attention task. Smoking marijuana resulted in intoxication, as assessed by a behavioral rating scale, but did not significantly alter mean behavioral performance on the attention task. Heart rate and blood pressure increased dramatically following smoking of marijuana but not placebo cigarettes. However, mean global CBF did not change significantly. Increased rCBF was observed in orbital and mesial frontal lobes, insula, temporal poles, anterior cingulate, as well as in the cerebellum. The increases in rCBF in anterior brain regions were predominantly in “paralimbic” regions and may be related to marijuanas mood-related effects. Reduced rCBF was observed in temporal lobe auditory regions, in visual cortex, and in brain regions that may be part of an attentional network (parietal lobe, frontal lobe and thalamus). These rCBF decreases may be the neural basis of perceptual and cognitive alterations that occur with acute marijuana intoxication. There was no significant rCBF change in the nucleus accumbens or other reward-related brain regions, nor in basal ganglia or hippocampus, which have a high density of cannabinoid receptors.

Logic and justification for dimensional assessment of symptoms and related clinical phenomena in psychosis: Relevance to DSM-5

Work on the causes and treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders has long recognized the heterogeneity of the symptoms that can be displayed by individuals with these illnesses. Further, researchers have increasingly emphasized the ways in which the severity of different symptoms of this illness can vary across individuals, and have provided evidence that the severity of such symptoms can predict other important aspects of the illness, such as the degree of cognitive and/or neurobiological deficits. Additionally, research has increasingly emphasized that the boundaries between nosological entities may not be categorical and that the comorbidity of disorders may reflect impairments in common dimensions of genetic variation, human behavior and neurobiological function. As such, it is critical to focus on a dimensional approach to the assessment of symptoms and clinically relevant phenomena in psychosis, so as to increase attention to and understanding of the causes and consequences of such variation. In the current article, we review the logic and justification for including dimensional assessment of clinical symptoms in the evaluation of psychosis in the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-5).

Attenuated psychosis syndrome in DSM-5

Despite advances in the treatment of schizophrenia over the past half-century, the illness is frequently associated with a poor outcome. This is principally related to the late identification and intervention in the course of the illness by which time patients have experienced a substantial amount of socio-occupational decline that can be difficult to reverse. The emphasis has therefore shifted to defining psychosis-risk syndromes and evaluating treatments that can prevent transition to psychosis in these ultra-high risk groups. To consider the appropriateness of adding psychosis risk syndrome to our diagnostic nomenclature, the psychotic disorders work group extensively reviewed all available data, consulted a range of experts, and carefully considered the variety of expert and public comments on the topic. It was clear that reliable methods were available to define a syndrome characterized by sub-threshold psychotic symptoms (in severity or duration) and which was associated with a very significant increase in the risk of development of a full-fledged psychotic disorder (schizophrenia spectrum, psychotic mood disorder, and other psychotic disorders) within the next year. At the same time, the majority of individuals with attenuated psychotic symptoms had one or more other current psychiatric comorbid conditions (usually mood or anxiety disorders, substance use disorder; Fusar-Poli 2012) and exhibited a range of psychiatric outcomes other than conversion to psychosis (significant proportions either fully recover or develop some other psychiatric disorder, with a minority developing a psychotic disorder). Although the reliability of the diagnosis is well established in academic and research settings, it was found to be less so in community and other clinical settings. Furthermore, the nosological relationship of attenuated psychosis syndrome (APS) to schizotypal personality disorder and other psychiatric conditions was unclear. Further study will hopefully resolve these questions. The work group decided to recommend the inclusion of attenuated psychosis syndrome as a category in the appendix (Section 3) of DSM-5 as a condition for further study.

Structure of the psychotic disorders classification in DSM‐5

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders attract great interest among clinicians, researchers, and the lay public. While the diagnostic features of schizophrenia have remained unchanged for more than 100 years, the mechanism of illness has remained elusive. There is increasing evidence that the categorical diagnosis of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders contributes to this lack of progress. The 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) continues the categorical classification of psychiatric disorders since the research needed to establish a new nosology of equal or greater validity is lacking. However, even within a categorical system, the DSM-5 aims to capture the underlying dimensional structure of psychosis. The domains of psychopathology that define psychotic disorders are presented not simply as features of schizophrenia. The level, the number, and the duration of psychotic signs and symptoms are used to demarcate psychotic disorders from each other. Finally, the categorical assessment is complemented with a dimensional assessment of psychosis that allows for more specific and individualized assessment of patients. The structure of psychosis as outlined in the DSM-5 may serve as a stepping-stone towards a more valid classification system, as we await new data to redefine psychotic disorders.

Catatonia in DSM-5

Although catatonia has historically been associated with schizophrenia and is listed as a subtype of the disorder, it can occur in patients with a primary mood disorder and in association with neurological diseases and other general medical conditions. Consequently, catatonia secondary to a general medical condition was included as a new condition and catatonia was added as an episode specifier of major mood disorders in DSM-IV. Different sets of criteria are utilized to diagnose catatonia in schizophrenia and primary mood disorders versus neurological/medical conditions in DSM-IV, however, and catatonia is a codable subtype of schizophrenia but a specifier for major mood disorders without coding. In part because of this discrepant treatment across the DSM-IV manual, catatonia is frequently not recognized by clinicians. Additionally, catatonia is known to occur in several conditions other than schizophrenia, major mood disorders, or secondary to a general medical condition. Four changes are therefore made in the treatment of catatonia in DSM-5. A single set of criteria will be utilized to diagnose catatonia across the diagnostic manual and catatonia will be a specifier for both schizophrenia and major mood disorders. Additionally, catatonia will also be a specifier for other psychotic disorders, including schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, and substance-induced psychotic disorder. A new residual category of catatonia not otherwise specified will be added to allow for the rapid diagnosis and specific treatment of catatonia in severely ill patients for whom the underlying diagnosis is not immediately available. These changes should improve the consistent recognition of catatonia across the range of psychiatric disorders and facilitate its specific treatment.

Schizoaffective disorder in the DSM-5

Characterization of patients with both psychotic and mood symptoms, either concurrently or at different points during their illness, has always posed a nosological challenge and this is reflected in the poor reliability, low diagnostic stability, and questionable validity of DSM-IV Schizoaffective Disorder. The clinical reality of the frequent co-occurrence of psychosis and Mood Episodes has also resulted in over-utilization of a diagnostic category that was originally intended to only rarely be needed. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition, an effort is made to improve reliability of this condition by providing more specific criteria and the concept of Schizoaffective Disorder shifts from an episode diagnosis in DSM-IV to a life-course of the illness in DSM-5. When psychotic symptoms occur exclusively during a Mood Episode, DSM-5 indicates that the diagnosis is the appropriate Mood Disorder with Psychotic Features, but when such a psychotic condition includes at least a two-week period of psychosis without prominent mood symptoms, the diagnosis may be either Schizoaffective Disorder or Schizophrenia. In the DSM-5, the diagnosis of Schizoaffective Disorder can be made only if full Mood Disorder episodes have been present for the majority of the total active and residual course of illness, from the onset of psychotic symptoms up until the current diagnosis. In earlier DSM versions the boundary between Schizophrenia and Schizoaffective Disorder was only qualitatively defined, leading to poor reliability. This change will provide a clearer separation between Schizophrenia with mood symptoms from Schizoaffective Disorder and will also likely reduce rates of diagnosis of Schizoaffective Disorder while increasing the stability of this diagnosis once made.

Memory complaint in a community sample aged 70 and older

OBJECTIVES: The ability of older people to estimate their own memory, often referred to as “metamemory,” has been evaluated in previous studies with conflicting reports regarding accuracy. Some studies have suggested that an older persons metamemory is mostly accurate, whereas others have demonstrated little relationship between memory complaint and actual impairment. This study examines memory complaint in a large national sample of older people aged ≥70.

Heart rate variability before and after treatment with electroconvulsive therapy

It has been suggested that depression may be associated with decreased parasympathetic activity. Based on this work, we tested the hypothesis that treatment of depression with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) would result in a relative increase in cardiac vagal (parasympathetic) activity. Changes in respiratory sinus arrhythmia, a marker of cardiac parasympathetic activity, were examined in nine patients with depressive episodes before and after ECT using spectral analysis. Hamilton Depression Rating Scale scores decreased significantly. In terms of the heart rate measures, RR interval tended to decrease and the amplitude of respiratory sinus arrhythmia decreased significantly following the course of ECT. This reduction in respiratory sinus arrhythmia contributed to the overall decrease in RR interval variability. Additionally, the magnitude of symptom improvement as measured by the Hamilton Scale correlated with the decrease in amplitude of the respiratory sinus arrhythmia. We report that treatment of depression with ECT was associated with a relative decrease in parasympathetic activity, in contrast to our initial hypothesis of a relative increase. This finding may not be related to the ECT per se but rather to the resolution of depression, as there was a significant correlation between the decrease in Hamilton Depression Rating Scale scores and decrease in parasympathetic activity. Further work is necessary to better understand the autonomic changes associated with depressive illness and the clinical risks and benefits associated with various treatment modalities.

Biomarkers in Psychiatry: Methodological Issues

Particularly in psychiatry, biological measures are increasingly sought to detect exposure to toxic agents, to assist in early identification of illness, and to enhance diagnostic certainty, provide prognostic information, and permit the mapping of outcome in a variety of disorders. The authors explore the fundamental criteria necessary to designate a biological measure as a biomarker and discuss the potential applications, limitations, and hazards of such markers. Authors discuss methods for establishing the validity of a biomarker. Finally, they convey a word of caution about overinterpreting the clinical or scientific value of any biological measure.