Susan M. Gass

Stimulated Recall Methodology in Second Language Research

Contents: Foreword. Preface. Acknowledgments. Introduction to Introspective Methods. Introspection and Second Language Research. Characterization of Stimulated Recall. Using Stimulated Recall Methodology. Limitations and Additional Uses. Appendices.

Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition

Second language acquisition research has historically been influenced by the field of linguistics, not only in terms of theoretical inisghts, but also in terms of the emphasis placed on varioustopics. Within linguistics, the lexicon has taken on a secondary role in terms of theory construction; within second language acquisition, the rift between studies of the lexicon and theory construction seems to be even greater. While it is no longer possible to say that the lexicon is the ‘neglected component’ of second language acquisition research, it does appear to be the case that most lexical studies are not centrally concerned with the establishment of a theory of the lexicon; rather, the majority deal with descriptive aspects of the lexicon.

HOW DO LEARNERS PERCEIVE INTERACTIONAL FEEDBACK

This study was designed to test the Fundamental Difference Hypothesis (Bley-Vroman, 1988), which states that, whereas children are known to learn language almost completely through (implicit) domain-specific mechanisms, adults have largely lost the ability to learn a language without reflecting on its structure and have to use alternative mechanisms, drawing especially on their problem-solving capacities, to learn a second language. The hypothesis implies that only adults with a high level of verbal analytical ability will reach near-native competence in their second language, but that this ability will not be a significant predictor of success for childhood second language acquisition. A study with 57 adult Hungarian-speaking immigrants confirmed the hypothesis in the sense that very few adult immigrants scored within the range of child arrivals on a grammaticality judgment test, and that the few who did had high levels of verbal analytical ability; this ability was not a significant predictor for childhood arrivals. This study replicates the findings of Johnson and Newport (1989) and provides an explanation for the apparent exceptions in their study. These findings lead to a reconceptualization of the Critical Period Hypothesis: If the scope of this hypothesis is limited to implicit learning mechanisms, then it appears that there may be no exceptions to the age effects that the hypothesis seeks to explain.

Input, Interaction, and Second Language Production.

The role of conversational interactions in the development of a second language has been central in the recent second language acquisition literature. While a great deal is now known about the way in which nonnative speakers interact with native speakers and other nonnative speakers, little is known about the lasting effects of these interactions on a nonnatives linguistic development. This paper specifically investigates the relationship among input, interaction, and second language production. Through data from native–nonnative speaker interactions in a direction-giving task, we show that both modified input and interaction affect task performance. However, only interaction has an effect on subsequent task performance.

The Effects of Task Repetition on Linguistic Output.

This article explores form/meaning relationships, focussing on the use learners make of their internal L2 linguistic resources as a function of focus on meaning. Native speakers ofEnglish watched video segments 4 times while recording their own on-line rendition in Spanish. One group watched the same video 3 times and the other group watched different videos each time. At Time 4 both experimental groups saw a new video. A control group saw videos only at Time 1 and Time 4. Analyses were conducted on the basis of overall proficiency, morphosyntax, and lexical sophistication. The results provide limited support for the prediction of improvement over time for the group that saw the same video, but no support for a “carryover” effect when the content changed.

Variation in Native Speaker Speech Modification to Non-Native Speakers

This study builds upon prior research dealing with the nature of discourse involving non-native speakers. In particular, we examine variables influencing native speaker foreigner talk and the form that speech modification takes. The data bases are (1) 80 taped telephone interviews between NNSs at two distinct proficiency levels, (interviewer) and NSs (interviewee), and (2) 20 NS-NS interviews. We consider five variables: 1) negotiation of meaning, 2) quantity of speech, 3) amount of repair (following a specific NNS request for repair), 4) elaborated responses, and 5) transparent responses. We find that the speech of NSs changes as a function of an NNSs ability to understand and be understood. We further suggest a general cognitive principle—transparency—underlying aspects of both foreigner talk and second language acquisition.

Second Language Acquisition

The intent of this chapter is to provide a selective overview of current second language acquisition (SLA) research. I begin by presenting several approaches to SLA, including formal linguistics, sociolinguistics/sociocultural theory and psycholinguistics. I then consider the roles of input, interaction, feedback and output as they relate to the acquisition of second language knowledge. The goal of this latter part is to show how this view of acquisition (the Input/Interaction/Output (IIO) approach) allows researchers to take into account a number of concepts which are necessary for understanding how second language learning takes place. In particular, I consider the role of attention as it relates to second language (L2) learning, particularly in the context of input, interaction, feedback and output. [See Vihman, Saxton and Peters, this volume for discussions of the role of attention in first language acquisition: SFC.]

Miscommunication in native/nonnative conversation*

In this paper we discuss miscommunication in exchanges between native speakers and nonnative speakers of a language, focusing on an analysis of a service encounter telephone conversation between a nonnative speaker and a native speaker television repair shop employee. We present a goal-based model of conversation and a coding system for interpreting utterances, both of which are necessary for understanding the type of miscommunication which occurred in the conversation described herein. We argue that the lack of shared background on the part of the interlocutors interacted with their lack of shared linguistic code. In general, such interactions hinder successful communication and increase the probability that the miscommunication will not be recognized and thus not easily resolved. We show that a complete analysis of native/nonnative conversations must minimally invoke notions of correct interpretation, confidence in interpretation, goals of a conversation, shared beliefs, and linguistic as well as cultural systems. (Sociolinguistics, nonnative interactions, conversational analysis, Ameri

Differential Effects of Attention

This study questions the extent to which attention differentially affects different parts of language and how this differential effect interacts with increased linguistic knowledge (i.e., proficiency). Thirty-four English speakers enrolled in Italian 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-year foreign language courses in the United States were placed into one of two conditions ([+focused attention] and [-focused attention]) for each of three linguistic areas (syntax, morphosyntax, and lexicon). It was predicted that focused attention would have the greatest effect on the lexicon and the least on syntax. The results showed the opposite. For the non-focused-attention condition, the predicted results were borne out. With regard to proficiency, focused attention had a diminishing effect, with the greatest effect in early periods of learning and the least in later stages.

The comprehensibility of non-native speech

This study presents data collected from both natural settings and controlled experiments in order to describe native speaker responses to non-natives and to discuss what variables of a non-natives speech might elicit these responses. We present the results of three experiments. The first investigates native speaker reactions to requests for information by both native and non-native speakers in a natural setting. Experiment two is a controlled study focussing on two variables of non-native speech—pronunciation and grammar—and the response of native speakers to these variables. Experiment three examines the relationship between these variables and native speaker comprehension. Experiment four focuses on the effect of ordering on comprehensibility. We then discuss the role all of these factors play in the comprehensibility of non-native speech. We suggest that comprehensibility is achieved through a complex interaction of many factors and that it is comprehensibility which largely contributes to the use of foreigner talk by native speakers.