Susan M. Owen

Inventorying emissions from nature in Europe

As part of the work of the Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations Task Force on Emission Inventories, a new set of guidelines has been developed for assessing the emissions of sulphur, nitrogen oxides, NH3, CH4, and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) from biogenic and other natural sources in Europe. This paper gives the background to these guidelines, describes the sources, and gives our recommended methodologies for estimating emissions. We have assembled land use and other statistics from European or national compilations and present emission estimates for the various natural/biogenic source categories based on these. Total emissions from nature derived here amount to ∼1.1 Tg S yr−1, 6–8 Tg CH4 yr−1, 70 Gg NH3 (as N) yr−1, and 13 Tg NMVOC yr−1. Estimates of biogenic NO x emissions cover a wide range, from 140 to 1500 Gg NO x (as N) yr−1. In terms of relative contribution to total European emissions for different pollutants, then NMVOC from forests and vegetation are clearly the most important emissions source. Biogenic NO x emissions (although heavily influenced by nitrogen inputs from anthropogenic activities) are very important if the higher estimates are reliable. CH4 from wetlands and sulphur from volcanoes are also significant emissions in the European budgets. On a global scale, European biogenic emissions are not significant, a consequence of the climate and size (7% of global land area) of Europe and of the destruction of natural ecosystems since prehistoric times. However, for assessing local budgets and for photochemical oxidant modeling, natural/biogenic emissions can play an important role. The most important contributor in this regard is undoubtedly forest VOC emissions, although this paper also indicates that NMVOC emissions from nonforested areas also need to be further evaluated. This paper was originally conceived as a contribution to the collection of papers arising as a result of the Workshop on Biogenic Hydrocarbons in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer, August 24–27, 1997. (Several papers arising from this workshop have been published in Journal of Geophysical Research, 103(D19) 1998.)

Screening of 18 Mediterranean plant species for volatile organic compound emissions

Abstract Eighteen tree and shrub species were screened for emissions of isoprene and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at three locations at Castelporziano (Italy) using a bag-enclosure sampling method followed by GC analysis. Thirty emitted compounds were identified. Temperature sensitivity of emissions of monoterpenes varied between species. Strong temperature dependencies were found for isoprene emissions. For monoterpene-emitting plant species with greatest ground cover in the dunes and macchia habitats, α-pinene, β-pinene and sabinene appeared to be the most frequently and abundantly emitted compounds. Isoprene was the major emission from the shrub species screened in the forest. Emissions from four dominant plant species were scaled up to estimate total fluxes from the dunes and macchia over a daytime period. Species with greatest biomass but low emission rates made a substantial contribution to total emissions.

Rapid deformation of Kilauea Volcano: Global Positioning System measurements between 1990 and 1996

Campaign Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements from 1990 to 1996 are used to calculate surface displacement rates on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. The GPS data show that the south flank of the volcano, which has generated several large earthquakes in the past 3 decades, is displacing at up to ;8 cm/yr to the south-southeast. The summit and rift zones are subsiding, with maximum subsidence rates of ;8 cm/yr observed a few kilometers south of the summit caldera. Elastic dislocation modeling of the GPS data suggests that the active sources of deformation include deep rift opening along the upper east and east rift zone, fault slip along a subhorizontal fault near the base of the volcano, and deflation near the summit caldera. A nonlinear optimization algorithm was used to explore the parameter space and to find the best fitting source geometry. There is a broad range of model geometries that fit the data reasonably well. However, certain models can be ruled out, including those that have shallow rift opening or shallow fault slip. Some offshore, aseismic slip on a fault plane that dips between 258 north- northwest and 88 south-southeast is required. Best fitting slip and rift opening rates are 23-28 cm/yr, although rates as low as 10 cm/yr are permitted by the data.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from 40 Mediterranean plant species : VOC speciation and extrapolation to habitat scale

Forty native Mediterranean plant species were screened for emissions of the C5 and C10 hydrocarbons, isoprene and monoterpenes, in five different habitats. A total of 32 compounds were observed in the emissions from these plants. The number of compounds emitted by different plant species varied from 19 (Quercus ilex) to a single compound emission, usually of isoprene. Emission rates were normalised to generate emission factors for each plant species for each sampling event at standard conditions of temperature and light intensity. Plant species were categorised according to their main emitted compound, the major groups being isoprene, α-pinene, linalool, and limonene emitters. Estimates of habitat fluxes for each emitted compound were derived from the contributing plant species’ emission factors, biomass and ground cover. Emissions of individual compounds ranged from 0.002 to 505 g ha−1 h−1 (camphene from garrigue in Spain in autumn and isoprene from riverside habitats in Spain in late spring; respectively). Emissions of isoprene ranged from 0.3 to 505 g ha−1 h−1 (macchia in Italy in late spring and autumn; and riverside in Spain in late spring; respectively) and α-pinene emissions ranged from 0.51 to 52.92 g ha−1 h−1 (garrigue in Spain in late spring; and forest in France in autumn; respectively). Habitat fluxes of most compounds in autumn were greater than in late spring, dominated by emissions from Quercus ilex, Genista scorpius and Quercus pubescens. This study contributes to regional emission inventories and will be of use to tropospheric chemical modellers.

Nitrogen management is essential to prevent tropical oil palm plantations from causing ground-level ozone pollution

More than half the worlds rainforest has been lost to agriculture since the Industrial Revolution. Among the most widespread tropical crops is oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): global production now exceeds 35 million tonnes per year. In Malaysia, for example, 13% of land area is now oil palm plantation, compared with 1% in 1974. There are enormous pressures to increase palm oil production for food, domestic products, and, especially, biofuels. Greater use of palm oil for biofuel production is predicated on the assumption that palm oil is an “environmentally friendly” fuel feedstock. Here we show, using measurements and models, that oil palm plantations in Malaysia directly emit more oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds than rainforest. These compounds lead to the production of ground-level ozone (O3), an air pollutant that damages human health, plants, and materials, reduces crop productivity, and has effects on the Earths climate. Our measurements show that, at present, O3 concentrations do not differ significantly over rainforest and adjacent oil palm plantation landscapes. However, our model calculations predict that if concentrations of oxides of nitrogen in Borneo are allowed to reach those currently seen over rural North America and Europe, ground-level O3 concentrations will reach 100 parts per billion (109) volume (ppbv) and exceed levels known to be harmful to human health. Our study provides an early warning of the urgent need to develop policies that manage nitrogen emissions if the detrimental effects of palm oil production on air quality and climate are to be avoided.

Effect of habitat and age on variations in volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from Quercus ilex and Pinus pinea

A dynamic branch enclosure was used to measure emission rates of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) under field conditions from two common native Mediterranean species, Quercus ilex and Pinus pinea. In addition to α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, limonene and cineole, a suite of lesser known compounds were tentatively identified including cis- and trans-ocimene, cis- and trans-linalool oxide and sabinaketone. Emissions of isoprene from Quercus ilex were insignificant in comparison to those of the monoterpenes and were not detected from Pinus pinea. Variability in emission rates between two habitats, the forest and the dunes, were assessed for Quercus ilex. Temperature sensitivities of emissions and total summed emission rates from Quercus ilex were clearly related to environmental conditions. Emission rates from Pinus pinea showed great variability, but differences between normalised mean emission rates from mature forest and young plantation trees may be significant. Existing emission rate models were found to inadequately describe the observed data.

Light dependency of VOC emissions from selected Mediterranean plant species

The light, temperature and stomatal conductance dependencies of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from ten plant species commonly found in the Mediterranean region were studied using a fully controlled leaf cuvette in the laboratory. At standard conditions of temperature and light (30°C and 1000 μmol m−2 s−1 PAR), low emitting species (Arbutus unedo, Pinus halepensis, Cistus incanus, Cistus salvifolius, Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus vulgaris) emitted between 0.1 and 5.0 μg (C) (total VOCs) g−1 dw h−1, a medium emitter (Pinus pinea) emitted between 5 and 10 μg (C) g−1 dw h−1 and high emitters (Cistus monspeliensis, Lavendula stoechas and Quercus sp.) emitted more than 10 μg (C) g−1 dw h−1. VOC emissions from all of the plant species investigated showed some degree of light dependency, which was distinguishable from temperature dependency. Emissions of all compounds from Quercus sp. were light dependent. Ocimene was one of several monoterpene compounds emitted by P. pinea and was strongly correlated to light. Only a fraction of monoterpene emissions from C. incanus exhibited apparent weak light dependency but emissions from this plant species were strongly correlated to temperature. Data presented here are consistent with past studies, which show that emissions are independent of stomatal conductance. These results may allow more accurate predictions of monoterpene emission fluxes from the Mediterranean region to be made.

Sampling and analysis of terpenes in air. An interlaboratory comparison

Abstract An interlaboratory comparison on the sampling and analysis of terpenes in air was held within the framework of the BEMA (Biogenic Emissions in the Mediterranean Area) project in May 1995. Samples were drawn and analysed by 10 European laboratories from a dynamic artificial air generator in which five terpenes were present at low ng l −1 levels and ozone varied between 8 and 125 ppbv. Significant improvements over previous inter-comparison exercises in the quality of results were observed. At the ozone mixing ratio of 8 ppbv a good agreement among laboratories was obtained for all test compounds with mean values close to the target concentration. At higher mixing ratios, ozone reduced terpene recoveries and decreased the precision of the measurements due to ozonolysis during sampling. For β-pinene this effect was negligible but for the more reactive compounds significant losses were observed in some laboratories ( cis -β-ocimene = trans -β-ocimene > linalool > d-limonene). The detrimental effect of ozone was significantly lower for the laboratories which removed ozone prior to sampling by scrubbers. Parallel sampling was carried out with a standardised sampler and each individual laboratorys own device. A good agreement between the two sets of results was obtained, clearly showing that the majority of laboratories used efficient sampling systems. Two different standard solutions were analysed by each laboratory. Only in a few cases did interference in the GC separation cause problems for the quantification of the terpenes (nonanal/linalool). However, making up of standards for the calibration of the analytical equipment (GC-MS or GC-FID) was pointed out as a source of error in some laboratories.

Eddy flux and leaf-level measurements of biogenic VOC emissions from mopane woodland of Botswana

Biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions were measured in a mopane woodland near Maun, Botswana in January–February 2001 as part of SAFARI 2000. This landscape is comprised of more than 95% of one woody plant species, Colophospermum mopane (Caesalpinaceae). Mopane woodlands extend over a broad area of southern Africa. A leaf cuvette technique was used to determine the emission capacities of the major vegetation and the temperature and light dependence of the emissions. In addition, relaxed eddy accumulation (REA) measurements of BVOC fluxes were made on a flux tower, where net CO2 emissions were also measured simultaneously. Large light-dependent emissions of terpenes (mostly α-pinene and d-limonene) were observed from the mopane woodland. The diurnal BVOC emissions were integrated and compared with the CO2 flux. Monoterpene flux exceeded 3000 μg C m−2 h−1 during the daytime period, comparable to isoprene fluxes and much higher than terpene fluxes measured in most areas. The terpene flux constituted approximately 25% of the diurnal net carbon exchange (CO2) during the experimental period. Other BVOC emissions may also contribute to the carbon exchange.

BIOGENIC VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND (VOC) EMISSION ESTIMATES FROM AN URBAN TREE CANOPY

Biogenic emissions of the volatile organic compounds isoprene and monoterpenes (BVOCs) can contribute to tropospheric ozone and secondary particle formation and have indirect effects on climate change. While there are few studies of BVOC emissions from European towns and cities, several studies in North America indicate that the urban tree canopy may be a significant source of BVOC compounds, contributing to ozone and particle formation in the urban air-shed. Here, BVOC emissions from the U.K. West Midlands (UKWM) metropolitan area were estimated and compared with anthropogenic VOC emission estimates, and with BVOC emission estimates for other urban and U.K. regions. Monoterpene and isoprene emission potential estimates for the UKWM urban land-use classes spanned as much as two orders of magnitude, from 17–104 g·km–2·h–1 and from 42–1570 g·km–2·h–1, respectively. Isoprene emission potential estimates for the UKWM urban land classes (42–530 g·km–2·h–1) were of the same order of magnitude as isoprene emissi...