Susan Snyman

The role of tourism employment in poverty reduction and community perceptions of conservation and tourism in southern Africa

High-end ecotourism operations in African protected areas often claim to share the benefits of ecotourism with surrounding rural communities through employment as well as “trickle down” effects of revenues that result from such operations. The receipt of benefits from ecotourism is also claimed to promote an appreciation of biological diversity and conservation in surrounding communities. In practice, these claimed benefits can be challenging to measure and no multi-country study has attempted to assess the efficacy of these claims across a variety of circumstances. This study assessed various impacts of ecotourism employment at study sites in Botswana, Malawi and Namibia. Analysis of household income, social welfare impacts and the number of people indirectly affected by ecotourism employment indicates that rural communities are moving towards an engagement with the market economy as a result of ecotourism operations. Monthly income from ecotourism employment was shown to enable households to invest in assets, education and “luxury” goods, which improved financial security and social welfare in remote, rural areas. A thorough analysis of the various factors impacting attitudes towards conservation and tourism showed that ecotourism employment positively affects attitudes, though level of education showed the largest impact.

Household spending patterns and flow of ecotourism income into communities around Liwonde National Park, Malawi

Rural Malawi is largely characterised by high levels of poverty, unemployment and high population densities. It is also seen as the ‘warm heart of Africa’, which, together with its abundant natural resources, makes it an excellent destination for international ecotourists. This paper looks at the impact of ecotourism employment on poverty reduction and the flow of ecotourism income into the villages adjacent to Liwonde National Park. Extensive questionnaire surveys were conducted with staff employed in ecotourism as well as with rural households in the villages adjacent to the Park. Comparisons of household income and social welfare highlight the important role of ecotourism employment in lifting people in these rural villages above the poverty line. Household spending patterns illustrate the flow of income from ecotourism into the local economy and the important impact of this on local socio-economic development. Suggestions for increasing local multiplier effects of ecotourism are put forward.

The impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and social welfare in six southern African countries

Rural African communities are largely characterised by high levels of unemployment and poverty, low skills levels and a heavy reliance on natural resources. Increasing populations, together with the impacts of climate change, are putting pressure on natural resources and the issue of sustainable land use is becoming critically important. Ecotourism is one possible sustainable land use which can also assist with both local socio-economic development and biodiversity conservation. This paper looks at the impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and overall social welfare in six southern African countries. Extensive socio-economic interview schedules were conducted in camps run by Wilderness Safaris in Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A total of 385 staff interviews were conducted in 16 high-end ecotourism camps, constituting a majority of the staff in these camps. A further 1400 community interviews were conducted in over 30 rural communities associated with these ecotourism camps. Two types of community members are differentiated in this study: those directly employed in a high-end ecotourism operation (staff) and those not employed in the high-end ecotourism operation (non-staff). For every camp, both groups of respondents were from the same community, living either in or around the protected area where the ecotourism operation was situated; allowing for comparisons between the two groups. The results show that rural households are relying heavily on the market economy, largely in the form of ecotourism, for support and highlight ecotourism employment’s important role in local socio-economic development in remote, rural areas. The results also highlight the importance of formal education, livelihood diversification and other formal employment in these areas. Suggestions for increasing the benefits to local communities are put forward.

The role of private sector ecotourism in local socio-economic development in southern Africa

ABSTRACT Ecotourism is frequently put forward as a potential solution for local development and biodiversity conservation in developing countries. Numerous researchers have looked at the various impacts of ecotourism on development and on conservation. There are, however, few studies looking at the role of stakeholders and the impact they are having on local development. We look specifically at the role of private sector stakeholders in local ecotourism development in southern Africa. We focus on one ecotourism operator, Wilderness Safaris, and our results are based on a desktop analysis of various reports, field work and data from a Ph.D. study looking at the socio-economic impact of private sector ecotourism on local communities. The results show that the private sector has an important role to play in local socio-economic development in terms of employment creation, skills training and development, the payment of lease fees as well as through philanthropic development projects. Recommendations are put forward as to how the private sector can further effect positive change in the areas where it is operating and ensure long-term sustainability.

Can a wildlife tourism company influence conservation and the development of tourism in a specific destination

The evolution of tourism destinations is influenced by a range of factors including the policy and planning framework, the role of destination management organisations, and integration of tourism into the local and national economy. The aim of this paper is to describe how the private sector can influence destination development, by considering a luxury safari lodge (Mombo Camp) and its holding company (Okavango Wilderness Safaris) within the Okavango Delta of Botswana. Through a series of stakeholder interviews and literature review, the research found that Mombo had influenced the destination’s quality standards, how it is marketed and promoted, and also in the conservation of endangered species. Over the course of 30 years, the holding company has also been influential in the development and implementation of tourism and conservation policy, environmental awareness among youth, and also conservation research. The findings of this study suggest that destination planning authorities should encourage reputable private sector operators that have a long-term interest in the destination and promote sustainable tourism practices, including those that can mobilise a network of facilities and attractions, can collaborate with their competitors, and can support and advise government on policy and its implementation.

The contribution of tourism revenue to financing protected area management in Southern Africa

Protected areas (PAs) are one way of conserving biodiversity, and ecosystem services and human well-being and are now recognized as an integral part of sustainable development strategies. Over the past four decades there has been a ten-fold increase in the number of protected areas globally. Increasingly however, park management agencies do not have sufficient funds to finance their conservation management activities, and most governments do not fund PA budgets fully. Furthermore, efforts to determine how much money is spent or required for PA financing has been hampered by significant data shortages, especially in the most underfunded countries as many are still unable to quantify the relative adequacy of their levels of conservation finance. This research assesses the extent to which tourism contributes towards biodiversity financing for PA management in southern African countries. It analyzes Fifth National Country Reports (produced in 2014/2015) submitted to the Convention for Biological Diversity produced for all southern African countries to determine the actual contribution of tourism to overall PA financing. It highlights that although tourism is a significant revenue source for PA authorities in southern Africa, how it is retained and reinvested back into conservation management remains ambiguous. The incompleteness and inconsistency of national level reporting presents a missed opportunity for justifying greater financing support.

Strategic Community Participation in Sustainable Tourism

Tourism has become an increasingly complex phenomenon, with political, economic, social, cultural, educational, biophysical, ecological and aesthetic dimensions. In order for tourism to be sustainable it must bring direct, as well as indirect, benefits to host communities. The aim is to provide an important means and motivation for communities to care for and maintain their natural and cultural heritage and cultural practices. In this process, there are diverse challenges, as well as opportunities, facing communities developing or engaging in tourism. This chapter provides a framework to assist communities in developing tourism in their area effectively, efficiently, equitably and sustainably.

Protected area tourism: Progress, innovation and sustainability

Protected areas are highly sought after destinations by the increasing number of global travellers. Tourism has grown faster in the last 60 years than most other industries and the United Nations World Tourism Organization estimates that the number of international tourist arrivals will increase by an average of 43 million (3.3%) a year in the second and third decades of this century. The literature on tourism is substantial, in 2012, there were >150,000 items in total, with around 5000 relevant to sustainable tourism (CIRET, 2012 in Buckley, 2012). Eagles et al. (2002: 13) explain that the growth in interest in sustainable tourism and ecotourism reflects a rising tide of social concern about the quality of the natural environment and the effects of tourism. McCool (2009) highlights that the management of sustainable tourism in protected areas essentially requires numerous tradeoffs between two goals: (1) protection of the key values that form the basis for preservation and (2) allowing access to visitors to enjoy and appreciate those values. He goes further to say that these trade-offs occur within a context of a lack of societal agreement on goals and also a lack of scientific agreement on the relationships between causes and effects; two conditions needed to identify and implement effective tourism management actions (McCool, 2009). Many researchers have described how tourism and visitation to protected areas can generate both positive and negative environmental, economic and social impacts (Eagles et al., 2002; Leung et al., in press; McCool, 2006; Mitchell and Ashley, 2010; Snyman, 2014). The past decade has seen the publication of research on protected areas addressing several core themes in relation to sustainable tourism, including: the economic impacts of tourism (Lapeyre, 2011; Nielsen and Spenceley, 2011; Snyman, 2012, 2014; Spenceley, 2010; Telfer and Sharpley, 2008), including a recent focus on value chain analysis (Meyer, 2007; Mitchell et al., 2009; Rogerson, 2012; Rylance and Spenceley, 2013; Spenceley et al., 2010) and inclusive tourism (Rylance and Spenceley, 2014a, 2014b), the social impacts of tourism (Deery et al., 2012; Esteves et al., 2012; Mbaiwa, 2005; Stronza and Gordillo, 2008) and the environmental impacts tourism has in protected areas (Buckley, 2010; Eagles, 2013; Mbaiwa, 2003). Another area of research which has progressed in the last decade is that of understanding visitation (Kajala, 2009, 2013; Kajala et al., 2007, Leung et al., in press; Spenceley et al., 2015a; Telfer and Sharpley, 2008) and the importance of understanding the impact of visitation on tourism and conservation and finding ways of maximising benefits and, at least, satisfying all stakeholders. There has also been research focusing on the different governance types of protected areas and the various tourism models that accompany these, for example transboundary protected areas, involving different country’s governments (Spenceley, 2006; Vasilijevic et al., 2015); community conserved areas (Lapeyre, 2011; Snyman, 2012) shared governance, and governance by the private sector (BorriniFeyeraband et al., 2013). The linkages between tourism and poverty reduction have also been explored extensively in the literature (e.g. Ashley et al., 2001; Erskine and Meyer, 2012; Hall and Brown, 2006; Mitchell, 2012; Rogerson, 2012; Scheyvens, 2011; Scheyvens and Russell, 2012; Spenceley and Meyer, 2012), and particularly in relation to areas of high biodiversity and protection (e.g. Ahebwa et al., 2012; Nelson, 2012; Rylance and Spenceley, 2014a, 2014b; Snyman, 2012). Demand for tourism in protected has largely grown since the end of Second World War and has been associated with the increasing convenience and reduced

Living on the edge: benefit-sharing from protected area tourism

Tourism in protected areas not only plays an essential role in terms of contributing to the financial sustainability of protected areas but through effective and efficient benefit-sharing can posit...

African tourism industry employees: expenditure patterns and comparisons with other community members

ABSTRACT Tourism is frequently put forward as a means to promote conservation and development. Numerous studies focus on tourists’ and tourism industry spending, but very few have looked at tourism staff spending. This paper examines spending patterns of 385 tourism staff in six southern African countries. The analysis includes understanding how much staff are spending, what factors impact on their spending and the local economic impacts of this spending in remote, rural areas. A comparison with 1400 respondents who are not working in tourism (non-staff) highlights the potential indirect multiplier effects and where rural households are spending their income. The results show that tourism staff are spending, on average, more than other community members (non-staff) and that a large percentage of their spending is local and has important positive impacts on other households, highlighting the wider importance of tourism employment, beyond simple job creation and the increased potential benefit-sharing from tourism, through staff spending. Promoting the use of local suppliers of goods and services would increase these induced impacts further. Future research should focus on further rounds of tourism staff spending to determine the full development impact.