Susann Wichmann

Stress-related and basic determinants of hair cortisol in humans: A meta-analysis

The analysis of hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) is a relatively new strategy to measure long-term cumulative cortisol levels, which is increasingly used in psychoneuroendocrinological research. Here, we conduct a first comprehensive meta-analysis of HCC research based on aggregated data from a total of 124 (sub)samples (66 independent studies; total N=10,289). We seek to answer two central questions: (i) Which covariates and basic features of HCC need to be considered in future research? (ii) What are the main determinants of HCC in terms of chronic stress exposure and mental health? Concerning basic characteristics, our findings identify several covariates to be considered (age, sex, hair washing frequency, hair treatment, oral contraceptive use), confirm a decline of HCC from the first to the second proximal 3cm hair segment, and show positive associations between HCC and short-term salivary cortisol measures. Regarding chronic stress, we show that stress-exposed groups on a whole exhibit 22% increased HCC. This long-term cortisol hypersecretion emerges particularly when stress is still ongoing at the time of study (+43% HCC) but is not present in conditions of past/absent stress (-9% HCC, n.s.). We also report evidence for 17%-reduced HCC in anxiety disorders, such as PTSD. Interestingly, no consistent associations with mood disorders and self-reports of perceived stress, depressiveness or social support are found. However, our findings reveal positive associations of HCC with stress-related anthropometric (body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio) and hemodynamic measures (systolic blood pressure). These meta-analytic results are discussed in the light of their practical implications and important areas for future inquiry are outlined.

Cortisol stress response in post-traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder, and major depressive disorder patients

BACKGROUND Previous research has focussed extensively on the distinction of HPA-axis functioning between patient groups and healthy volunteers, with relatively little emphasis on a direct comparison of patient groups. The current studys aim was to analyse differences in the cortisol stress response as a function of primary diagnosis of panic disorder (PD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and major depressive disorder (MDD). METHODS A total of n=30 PD (mean age±SD: 36.07±12.56), n=23 PTSD (41.22±10.17), n=18 MDD patients (39.00±14.93) and n=47 healthy control (HC) individuals (35.51±13.15) participated in this study. All the study participants were female. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was used for reliable laboratory stress induction. Blood sampling accompanied the TSST for cortisol and ACTH assessment. Panic-related, PTSD-specific questionnaires and the Beck Depression Inventory II were handed out for the characterisation of the study groups. Repeated measure ANCOVAs were conducted to test for main effects of time or group and for interaction effects. Regression analyses were conducted to take comorbid depression into account. RESULTS 26.7% of the PD patients, 43.5% of the PTSD patients, 72.2% of the MDD patients and 80.6% of the HC participants showed a cortisol stress response upon the TSST. ANCOVA revealed a cortisol hypo-responsiveness both in PD and PTSD patients, while no significant group differences were seen in the ACTH concentrations. Additional analyses showed no impact of comorbid depressiveness on the cortisol stress response. MDD patients did not differ in the hormonal stress response neither compared to the HC participants nor to the PD and PTSD patients. CONCLUSION Our main findings provide evidence of a dissociation between the cortisol and ACTH concentrations in response to the TSST in PTSD and in PD patients, independent of comorbid depression. Our results further support overall research findings of a cortisol hypo-responsiveness in PD patients. A hypo-response pattern was also seen in the PTSD patients agreeing with previous finding on the cortisol stress reactivity following TSST stress induction in these patients. Patients with a primary MDD diagnosis showed descriptively higher cortisol concentrations compared to the anxiety patients, and lower cortisol concentrations as the healthy individuals. The limitations of the study and implications for future studies will be discussed.

Effects of the cortisol stress response on the psychotherapy outcome of panic disorder patients

BACKGROUND A proportion of patients with panic disorder (PD) fail to show a remission after psychotherapy. Biological correlates of psychotherapy non-response have rarely been described in the literature. The aim of the present study was to research the relationship between the cortisol stress response and the psychotherapy outcome in PD patients. METHODS Twenty-eight PD patients (20 females, mean age±SD: 35.71±13.18) seeking psychological treatment for PD and n=32 age- and sex-matched healthy control participants (21 females, aged 34.66±12.07) participated in this study. The patients underwent five weeks of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). Within the first two weeks of the CBT, both study groups were confronted with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Blood sampling for cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) evaluation as well as fear-rating (Visual Analogue Scale; Primary Appraisal and Secondary Appraisal Questionnaire, PASA) accompanied the TSST. The global severity of PD (Panic & Agoraphobia Scale; PAS), agoraphobic cognitions (Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire; ACQ), fear of bodily sensations (Bodily Sensations Questionnaire; BSQ), agoraphobic avoidance (Mobility Inventory; MI), and depressiveness (Beck Depression Inventory; BDI) were assessed before and after the CBT (except the BDI). RESULTS The statistical analysis revealed significant main effects of time for cortisol and the ACTH concentration in response to the TSST, independently of the study group. 42.9% of the PD patients and 65.6% of the healthy control participants showed a cortisol stress response to the TSST≥55.2nmol/l (descriptive finding). The data showed a significant inverse association of the TSST cortisol stress response with the MI total score when accompanied. Further, a significant association of the PASA subjective level of fear and the BSQ as well as a trend for an association of the PASA with the ACQ were observed. CONCLUSION Consistent with prior research, we could replicate findings of decreased cortisol concentrations in the PD patients in comparison to the healthy control participants. Furthermore, our findings agree with previous data showing an association of the attenuated cortisol stress response with the psychotherapy non-response. In the present sample, those patients with the lowest cortisol concentrations showed the least improvement in agoraphobic avoidance after psychotherapy. The patients with the highest level of fear showed the most improvement in fear of bodily sensations. Study limitations as well as implications for future studies will be discussed.

Stress hormone response to the DEX–CRH test and its relation to psychotherapy outcome in panic disorder patients with and without agoraphobia

This study tested whether the hormonal stress response to the DEX–CRH test may be predictive of the psychotherapy success for panic disorder (PD). Thirty-four patients diagnosed either with agoraphobia with PD or PD without agoraphobia were subjected to cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). Patients (pre-therapy) and healthy volunteers were exposed to the DEX–CRH test. Blood samples were taken for cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) assessment. Established panic-specific questionnaires were handed out for the pre-therapy and post-therapy evaluation of disease severity (with reference to panic beliefs and agoraphobic cognitions, fear of bodily sensations, agoraphobic avoidance behaviour). Repeated measures ANCOVA were conducted for the analysis of the pre-therapy hormonal response, and Pearson’s correlation analysis to test for associations with the psychotherapy outcome. Data analyses revealed large effect sizes for CBT in the clinical measures (η2 ≥ 0.321), main effects of time for cortisol and ACTH with no differences between both groups, and significant associations between cortisol release and agoraphobic cognitions for the patients. PD diagnosis had no impact on the hormonal response. However, those patients with higher cortisol release showed less improvement after CBT (significantly for agoraphobic cognitions). Clinical implications of these findings are the prediction of the therapy success from a potential endocrine correlate whose persistency (if assessed repeatedly) during the treatment may predict (non-)response to the current treatment, possibly representing a decision support for a change in treatment to avoid the continuation of an inefficient treatment.

Stress-induced pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine concentrations in panic disorder patients

BACKGROUND An attenuated responsivity of the hypothalamus-hypophysis-adrenal (HPA) axis upon challenge and an increased risk for cardiac events are relatively consistent findings in panic disorder (PD) patients. Due to cytokine-HPA interactions, an altered HPA-axis responsivity may be accompanied by altered cytokine concentrations. Immunological reactions under stress might be considered the missing link for explaining an increased cardiac risk. This study analyzed stress-induced cytokine levels in PD patients. METHODS A total of n = 32 PD patients and n = 32 healthy control individuals performed the Trier Social Test (TSST). Blood sample collection accompanied the TSST for the collection of cortisol and pro- (IL-6, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10). Established self-report questionnaires were handed out for the clinical characterization and the assessment of subjective levels of distress during testing. Repeated measures ANCOVA were conducted to evaluate main effects of time or group and time x group interaction effects. Additional ANCOVAS with disease severity as between-subjects factor (healthy, borderline, mild, moderate, severe) took global panic severity into account. Pearson correlation analyses were carried out to test for an association of panic specific symptoms and peak cytokine release. RESULTS The TSST resulted in a significantly increased secretion of cortisol, IL-6 and IL-10. The data analysis further revealed a significant time x group interaction effect for cortisol and IL-10. Compared to the healthy volunteers, the PD patients showed significantly higher baseline and challenged IL-10 concentrations but lower challenged cortisol concentrations. Mildly and moderately affected patients showed the highest levels of IL-10 compared to the healthy individuals. There were no differential secretion patterns of IL-6 and TNF-α between both groups in the course of the TSST. The peak IL-6 release was found to be significantly associated with global disease severity. CONCLUSION We found evidence for altered levels of cytokines with primarily anti-inflammatory properties in PD patients under baseline and a psychosocial stress condition. The results provide tentative evidence for a low-grade inflammatory process in PD patients, possibly representing a missing link factor between PD diagnosis and the increased risk for cardiac disease.

Type-D Personality in Unemployed Subjects: Prevalence, Self-Efficacy and Heart Rate Variability/Autonomic Response

RESEARCH ARTICLE Type-D Personality in Unemployed Subjects: Prevalence, Self-Efficacy and Heart Rate Variability/Autonomic Response Katja Petrowski, Katharina Wendt, Susann Wichmann and Martin Siepmann Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Dresden, Germany University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus Dresden, Technische Universitaet Dresden Fetscherstr, 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany Department of Psychology and Psychotherapy, University Witten/Herdecke, Alfred-Herrhausen-Straße 50, 58448 Witten, Germany