Susannah Allison

Adherence to antiretroviral treatment among pregnant and postpartum HIV-infected women

Abstract Among women with HIV infection, pregnancy is a time when maintenance of maternal health and reduction of vertical HIV transmission are primary concerns. Few studies have examined adherence to Antiretroviral Treatment (ART) during pregnancy and in the postpartum period when the demands of childcare may significantly interfere with womens self-care behaviors. This study examined ART use and adherence in HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women participating in the Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS-IV) in the US. Adherence was assessed through a self-report interview during the third trimester of pregnancy and six-month postpartum. Data were also collected on demographics, biomedical markers and health related symptoms. During the third trimester visit, 77% (309/399) of women completed the self-report adherence measure; 61% (188/309) reported complete adherence. Factors associated with non-adherence included advanced HIV disease status, higher HIV-RNA viral load, more health-related symptoms and alcohol and tobacco use. At six-month postpartum, 55% (220/399) completed the measure; 44% (97/220) of these women reported complete adherence. Factors associated with non-adherence during the postpartum period were ethnicity, more health-related symptoms and WITS clinical site. Results of multivariate analyses using Generalized Estimated Equation analyses across the two visits revealed that more health-related symptoms, higher HIV-RNA viral load, increased alcohol use and clinical site were independently associated with ART non-adherence. These analyses indicate that medication adherence is more likely during pregnancy than postpartum in HIV-infected women, perhaps provoked by motivation to reduce vertical transmission and/or intensive antepartum surveillance. Further investigation is warranted to clarify factors implicated in womens decision-making process regarding ART medication adherence.

Behavioral Health Risks in Perinatally HIV-Exposed Youth: Co-Occurrence of Sexual and Drug Use Behavior, Mental Health Problems, and Nonadherence to Antiretroviral Treatment

In a sample of perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) and perinatally HIV-exposed, uninfected (PHEU) adolescents, we examined the co-occurrence of behavioral health risks including mental health problems, onset of sexual and drug use behaviors, and (in PHIV+ youth) nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART). Participants, recruited from 2007 to 2010, included 349 youth, ages 10-16 years, enrolled in a cohort study examining the impact of HIV infection and ART. Measures of the above behavioral health risks were administered to participants and primary caregivers. Nearly half the participants met study criteria for at least one behavioral health risk, most frequently, mental health problems (28%), with the onset of sexual activity and substance use each reported by an average of 16%. Among the sexually active, 65% of PHIV+ and 50% of PHEU youth reported unprotected sex. For PHIV +youth, 34% reported recent ART nonadherence, of whom 45% had detectable HIV RNA levels. Between 16% (PHIV+) and 11% (PHEU) of youth reported at least two behavioral health risks. Older age, but not HIV status, was associated with having two or more behavioral health risks versus none. Among PHIV+ youth, living with a birth mother (versus other caregivers) and detectable viral load were associated with co-occurrence of behavioral health risks. In conclusion, this study suggests that for both PHIV+ and PHEU youth, there are multiple behavioral health risks, particularly mental health problems, which should be targeted by service systems that can integrate prevention and treatment efforts.

The Intersection of Youth, Technology, and New Media with Sexual Health: Moving the Research Agenda Forward

Youth bear a significant proportion of the sexually transmitted infection (STI)/HIV burden in the United States, CDC, 2010. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats09/default.htm, with rates of some STIs increasing among youth of color and young men who have sex with men. Technology use among youth also continues to increase. The ubiquitous nature of technology use among youth offers a multitude of opportunities to promote youth sexual health and to prevent disease transmission and unplanned pregnancies. To date, there have been a handful of peer-reviewed articles published regarding the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of using new media and technology for sexual health promotion. Despite recent publications, there is still a real need for high-quality research to understand the impact of different forms of new media use on youth sexual health, as well as to determine the best ways to harness technology to promote safer sex behaviors, both for the short- and long-term. In March 2011, Internet Sexuality Information Services (ISIS), National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), and the Ford Foundation convened a meeting of scientists and technology experts to discuss how to effectively conduct sexual health promotion research using new forms of technology. The meeting was structured to cover the following topic areas: (i) research-community partnerships, (ii) institutional review board and ethical issues, (iii) theoretical frameworks, (iv) intervention approaches, (v) recruitment methods, and (vi) assessing impact. Presentations included case studies of successful technology-based HIV/STI prevention interventions for youth, which led to broader discussions on how to conduct research in this area. This article summarizes the meeting proceedings, highlights key points, offers recommendations, and outlines future directions.

Mental health functioning among children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection and perinatal HIV exposure

Mental health problems (MHPs) among children with perinatal HIV infection have been described prior to and during the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) era. Yet child, caregiver and socio-demographic factors associated with MHPs are not fully understood. We examined the prevalence of MHPs among older children and adolescents with perinatal HIV exposure, including both perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV + ) and perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHEU) youth. Our aims were to identify the impact of HIV infection by comparing PHIV+ and PHEU youth and to delineate risk factors associated with MHPs, in order to inform development of appropriate prevention and intervention strategies. Youth and their caregivers were interviewed with the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition (BASC-2) to estimate rates of at-risk and clinically significant MHPs, including caregiver-reported behavioral problems and youth-reported emotional problems. The prevalence of MHPs at the time of study entry was calculated for the group overall, as well as by HIV status and by demographic, child health, and caregiver characteristics. Logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with youth MHPs. Among 416 youth enrolled between March 2007 and July 2009 (295 PHIV+, 121 PHEU), the overall prevalence of MHPs at entry was 29% and greater than expected based on recent national surveys of the general population. MHPs were more likely among PHEU than among PHIV+ children (38% versus 25%, p<0.01). Factors associated with higher odds of MHPs at p<0.10 included caregiver characteristics (psychiatric disorder, limit-setting problems, health-related functional limitations) and child characteristics (younger age and lower IQ). These findings suggest that PHEU children are at high risk for MHPs, yet current models of care for these youth may not support early diagnosis and treatment. Family-based prevention and intervention programs for HIV affected youth and their caregivers may minimize long-term consequences of MHPs.

Sexual Risk Behavior Among Youth With Perinatal HIV Infection in the United States: Predictors and Implications for Intervention Development

BACKGROUND Factors associated with initiation of sexual activity among perinatally human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected (PHIV(+)) youth, and the attendant potential for sexual transmission of antiretroviral (ARV) drug-resistant HIV, remain poorly understood. METHODS We conducted cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of PHIV(+) youth aged 10-18 years (mean, 13.5 years) enrolled in the US-based Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study between 2007 and 2009. Audio computer-assisted self-interviews (ACASI) were used to collect sexual behavior information. RESULTS Twenty-eight percent (95% confidence interval [CI], 23%-33%) (92/330) of PHIV(+) youth reported sexual intercourse (SI) (median initiation age, 14 years). Sixty-two percent (57/92) of sexually active youth reported unprotected SI. Among youth who did not report history of SI at baseline, ARV nonadherence was associated with sexual initiation during follow-up (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.87; 95% CI, 1.32-6.25). Youth living with a relative other than their biological mother had higher odds of engaging in unprotected SI than those living with a nonrelative. Thirty-three percent of youth disclosed their HIV status to their first sexual partner. Thirty-nine of 92 (42%) sexually active youth had HIV RNA ≥5000 copies/mL after sexual initiation. Viral drug resistance testing, available for 37 of these 39 youth, identified resistance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in 62%, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in 57%, protease inhibitors in 38%, and all 3 ARV classes in 22%. CONCLUSIONS As PHIV(+) youth become sexually active, many engage in behaviors that place their partners at risk for HIV infection, including infection with drug-resistant virus. Effective interventions to facilitate youth adherence, safe sex practices, and disclosure are urgently needed.

Family Experiences with Pediatric Antiretroviral Therapy: Responsibilities, Barriers, and Strategies for Remembering Medications

This study examines the relationship between adherence to pediatric HIV regimens and three family experience factors: (1) regimen responsibility; (2) barriers to adherence; and (3) strategies for remembering to give medications. Caregivers of 127 children ages 2-15 years in the PACTS-HOPE multisite study were interviewed. Seventy-six percent of caregivers reported that their children were adherent (taking > or = 90% of prescribed doses within the prior 6 months). Most caregivers reported taking primary responsibility for medication-related activities (72%-95% across activities); caregivers with primary responsibility for calling to obtain refills (95%) were more likely to have adherent children. More than half of caregivers reported experiencing one or more adherence barriers (59%). Caregivers who reported more barriers were also more likely to report having non-adherent children. Individual barriers associated with nonadherence included forgetting, changes in routine, being too busy, and child refusal. Most reported using one or more memory strategies (86%). Strategy use was not associated with adherence. Using more strategies was associated with a greater likelihood of reporting that forgetting was a barrier. For some families with adherence-related organizational or motivational difficulties, using numerous memory strategies may be insufficient for mastering adherence. More intensive interventions, such as home-based nurse-administered dosing, may be necessary.

Preventing HIV among young people: research priorities for the future.

Objective:To review the current state of knowledge on the prevention of sexual transmission of HIV in adolescents and to highlight the existing gaps and priority areas for future research. Background:A disproportionate burden of HIV infections falls on adolescents, a developmental stage marked by unique neural, biological, and social transition. Successful interventions are critical to prevent the spread of HIV in this vulnerable population. Methods:We summarized the current state of research on HIV prevention in adolescents by providing examples of successful interventions and best practices, and highlighting current research gaps. Results:Adolescent interventions fall into 3 main categories: biomedical, behavioral, and structural. The majority of current research has focused on individual behavior change, whereas promising biomedical and structural interventions have been largely understudied in adolescents. Combination prevention interventions may be particularly valuable to this group. Conclusions:Adolescents have unique needs with respect to HIV prevention, and, thus, interventions should be designed to most effectively reach out to this population with information and services that will be relevant to them.

Relationship between viral load and self-report measures of medication adherence among youth with perinatal HIV infection.

Poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) contributes to disease progression and emergence of drug-resistant HIV in youth with perinatally acquired HIV infection (PHIV +), necessitating reliable measures of adherence. Although electronic monitoring devices have often been considered the gold-standard assessment in HIV research, they are costly, can overestimate nonadherence and are not practical for routine care. Thus, the development of valid, easily administered self-report adherence measures is crucial for adherence monitoring. PHIV+youth aged 7–16 (n = 289) and their caregivers, enrolled in a multisite cohort study, were interviewed to assess several reported indicators of adherence. HIV-1 RNA viral load (VL) was dichotomized into >/≤400 copies/mL. Lower adherence was significantly associated with VL >400 copies/mL across most indicators, including ≥1 missed dose in past seven days [youth report: OR = 2.78 (95% CI, 1.46–5.27)]. Caregiver and combined youth/caregiver reports yielded similar results. Within-rater agreement between various adherence indicators was high for both youth and caregivers. Inter-rater agreement on adherence was moderate across most indicators. Age ≥13 years and living with biological mother or relative were associated with VL >400 copies/mL. Findings support the validity of caregiver and youth adherence reports and identify youth at risk of poor adherence.

Language Impairment in Children Perinatally Infected with HIV Compared to Children Who Were HIV-Exposed and Uninfected

Objective: To investigate the risk for language impairment (LI) in children perinatally infected or exposed to HIV. Methods: We evaluated the prevalence of LI in 7- to 16-year-old children with perinatal HIV infection (HIV+) compared with HIV-exposed and uninfected children, using a comprehensive standardized language test (Clinical Evaluation of Language Functioning-Fourth Edition [CELF-4]). LI was classified as primary LI (Pri-LI) (monolingual English exposure and no cognitive or hearing impairment), concurrent LI (Con-LI) (cognitive or hearing impairment), or no LI. Associations of demographic, caregiver, HIV disease, and antiretroviral treatment factors with LI category were evaluated using univariate and multivariable logistic regression models. Results: Of the 468 children with language assessments, 184 (39%) had LI. No difference was observed by HIV infection status for overall LI or for Pri-LI or Con-LI; mean (SD) CELF-4 scores were 88.5 (18.4) for HIV+ versus 87.5 (17.9) for HIV-exposed and uninfected children. After adjustment, black children had higher odds of Pri-LI versus no LI (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 2.43, p = .03). Children who were black, Hispanic, had a caregiver with low education or low intelligence quotient, or a nonbiological parent as caregiver had higher odds of Con-LI versus no LI. Among HIV+ children, viral load >400 copies/mL (aOR = 3.04, p < .001), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Class C (aOR = 2.19, p = .02), and antiretroviral treatment initiation <6 months of age (aOR = 2.12, p = .02) were associated with higher odds of Con-LI versus no LI. Conclusions: Children perinatally exposed to HIV are at high risk for LI, but such risk was not increased for youth with HIV. Risk factors differed for Pri-LI and Con-LI.

Evaluation of risk for late language emergence after in utero antiretroviral drug exposure in HIV-exposed uninfected infants.

Background: Combination antiretroviral (cARV) regimens are recommended for pregnant women with HIV to prevent perinatal HIV transmission. Safety is a concern for infants who were HIV-exposed but uninfected, particularly for neurodevelopmental problems, such as language delays. Methods: We studied late language emergence (LLE) in HIV-exposed but uninfected children enrolled in a US-based prospective cohort study. LLE was defined as a caregiver-reported score ⩽10th percentile in any of 4 domains of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory for 1-year olds and as ≥1 standard deviation below age-specific norms for the Ages and Stages Questionnaire for 2-year olds. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations of in utero cARV exposure with LLE, adjusting for infant, maternal and environmental characteristics. Results: 1129 language assessments were conducted among 792 1- and 2-year-old children (50% male, 62% black and 37% Hispanic). Overall, 86% had in utero exposure to cARV and 83% to protease inhibitors. LLE was identified in 26% of 1-year olds and 23% of 2-year olds, with higher rates among boys. In adjusted models, LLE was not associated with maternal cARV or ARV drug classes in either age group. Among cARV-exposed 1-year olds, increased odds of LLE was observed for those exposed to atazanavir (adjusted odds ratio = 1.83, 95% confidence interval: 1.10–3.04), particularly after the first trimester (adjusted odds ratio = 3.56, P = 0.001), compared with atazanavir-unexposed infants. No associations of individual ARV drugs with LLE were observed among 2-year olds. Conclusions: In utero cARV exposure showed little association with LLE, except for a higher risk of language delay observed in 1-year-old infants with atazanavir exposure.