Susie Miles

The Education for All and inclusive education debate: conflict, contradiction or opportunity?

This paper begins with an exploration of the history of the international Education for All (EFA) programme and its tendency to overlook some marginalised groups of children, in particular those seen as having ‘special educational needs’ or impairments and disabilities. The exclusion from ‘mainstream’ education programmes of the estimated, though unreliable, figures of 90 or 98% of children in Southern countries has, until relatively recently, been largely unchallenged. The explanation lies in the still prevalent view that some children are ‘ineducable’ and that overcrowded and under‐resourced schools would not be able to cope. Consequently, a largely parallel, international debate has developed about ‘inclusive education’, within which many conflicting positions exist. We suggest that there is an unhelpful and wasteful polarisation between EFA and inclusive education. Although inclusive education is defined by some writers in terms of overcoming barriers to learning and development for all children, in the context of Southern countries it tends to fill the gap left by EFA and so focuses almost exclusively on disabled children. This paper challenges some of the rhetoric, but also highlights the opportunities created by the current international interest in, and apparent commitment to, delivering quality education for all children. The paper concludes by offering a re‐conceptualisation of the relationship between EFA and inclusive education, argues for greater collaboration and synergy between these currently parallel initiatives, and suggests ways in which practitioners and policy makers can develop more sustainable, and context‐appropriate, policies and practices.

Community‐level Responses to Disability and Education in Rwanda

This article explores the meaning of community and perceptions of disability in Rwanda, as revealed through a community‐based ethnographic study. This study took place in Rwanda in an educational policy context driven by international rhetoric about human rights, inclusion and the arguably unachievable Education for All targets. We argue that the emphasis on the inclusion of marginalised groups in Rwanda’s current education policy is a reality on paper, but not in practice. However, we explore the potential for a deeper understanding of community responses to disability, and ways in which the rhetoric and reality gap can be bridged. We consider some of the attitudinal and infrastructural barriers in educational settings and argue that Rwandan communities are resourceful, and can be supported to respond appropriately to children with disabilities.

Engaging with teachers’ knowledge: promoting inclusion in Zambian schools

Current efforts to ensure that every child completes a full cycle of primary education are hampered by chronic poverty and prolonged conflict in the South. It is estimated that 75 million children of primary age are out of school and that one‐third are disabled. This paper contrasts the exclusionary impact of the global digital and communication divide with the international rhetoric of Education for All. Access to information has increased in our brave new world, but inequitably. In this paper insights are explored from a study carried out by the Enabling Education Network in schools in Northern Zambia, in which reflective writing played a role in generating locally relevant teachers’ knowledge. Although there was only minimal evidence of the benefits of the digital revolution, the Zambian teachers successfully developed a problem‐based approach to including disabled children in education as part of their commitment to child rights.

Making sense of inclusive education in the Pacific region: Networking as a way forward

This article is based on material collected in researching the viability of a regional network focused on the inclusion of children with disabilities in education in the Pacific region. It discusses the importance of balancing the international vision of a rights-based approach to education with indigenous inclusive values in the small and scattered Pacific island populations. A case study is analysed of the development of community-based inclusive education in Samoa by a national non-governmental organisation in collaboration with various government ministries, and finally, the potential of networking in generating new, contextually relevant knowledge about inclusive education is debated.

Including deaf children in primary schools in Bushenyi, Uganda: A community-based initiative

Abstract Bushenyi District Education Department in Uganda, east Africa, is supporting 123 deaf children registered in 14 units attached to primary schools—eight per cent of deaf children in Bushenyi. Yet fewer than two per cent of deaf children attend school in Uganda as a whole. The history of this ground-breaking, parent-led, yet government-funded, community-based initiative is explored in the light of global efforts to promote Education for All. It is argued that government commitment to teacher education, parent involvement and Sign Language development has led to more positive attitudes towards deaf children and their right to attend school in their communities. Furthermore, community involvement is essential in achieving quality education for all for deaf and disabled children, and attempts to implement Northern policies and practices on inclusive education are likely to fail. The imaginative use of community-based human resources can lead to more genuine forms of educational inclusion.

Exploring understandings of inclusion in schools in Zambia and Tanzania using reflective writing and photography

In this article I explore insights gained from participating in an exploratory, small-scale study led by the Enabling Education Network (EENET) in 17 schools in northern Zambia and five schools in Tanzania. Facilitating South-based research, while based in a Northern university, raises complex ethical issues about voice and control which are discussed in the article. The main aim of the study was to explore understandings of inclusive education at school and community level in northern Zambia and Tanzania in the light of government efforts to promote Education for All. Reflective writing, photo elicitation and participatory photography were some of the methods used to generate locally relevant knowledge about marginalisation from the educational process, although the focus here is primarily on the issue of disability as a cause of educational exclusion.

Education for diversity: the role of networking in resisting disabled people’s marginalisation in Bangladesh

This article examines the role networking has played, at local and national levels, in facilitating communication between key actors involved in challenging the marginalisation of disabled people from education and from wider Bangladeshi society. Efforts to promote awareness of the importance of including disabled children in their local schools have gained ground at national level through a complex web of networking relationships, including government departments concerned with education and social welfare, disability-focused NGOs and mainstream development agencies and networks. The article explores the experience of blind people, (in their role as members of self-help groups linked to Community-Based Rehabilitation programmes in rural areas) in supporting disabled children to access their local school, and in ensuring their safety. Some evidence is provided for the role of networking in challenging marginalising policies, in accessing services (including financial benefits), and in resisting marginalisation. In considering this evidence, the authors debate the different forms and meanings of networking in societies which prioritise collectivity and interdependence, rather than individualism.

Establishing the foundations for an inclusive education system in Iraq: reflection on findings from a nationwide survey

This paper reports a national study on the prevalence of childhood disability designed to inform initiatives promoting improved school attendance by children with disabilities in Iraq. The study was commissioned by UNICEF, coordinated by the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics, and designed by academics in the UK in consultation with Iraqi academics and professionals. The mixed methods study included a major household survey, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups across four of Iraqs 18 governorates (Erbil, Baghdad, Najaf and Basra). An initial scoping study collected background data through interviews, site-visits and document analysis, establishing the context and informing the design of the main study. In this paper, we provide an overview of the educational context in Iraq, data on school attendance and disability among children aged 6–18 years, and the perspectives and vision for education in Iraq verbalised by key stakeholders. This research provides insights into current patterns of school attendance, and considers some of the implications for inclusive education in Iraq. We conclude by discussing the potential for implementation of Iraqi policy initiatives to impact on the rights of disabled people within education and wider social provision.

Education in times of conflict and the invisibility of disability: a focus on Iraq?

Education has come to be a key focus of the humanitarian response of international agencies in countries affected by conflict, but disabled children tend to be excluded from these education initiatives. Yet the reconstruction process can provide governments with a unique opportunity to reassess the way they educate disabled children, and consider moving towards more inclusive educational approaches. Indeed, crises can be seen as opportunities to ‘build back better’. A review of the limited literature is followed by an account of a disability study in Iraq, and reflections on the way forward for collaborative research on educational reconstruction in post-conflict societies.

Creating conversations: an inclusive approach to the international networking of knowledge about education

Networking has been central to human communication and social engagement for centuries, but has changed dramatically with the advent of new technology. However, the practice of networking has received little academic attention and tends to be undertheorised. This paper considers the impact of the global digital and communication divide, and the contested nature of inclusive education, on the task of promoting information sharing internationally. A summative case study is presented of a network, established to support the documentation of promising practice on inclusive education in countries with limited access to information and material resources. The case study uses autoethnographic methods to identify key principles for the development of an inclusive network. The significance of this paper is in its proposition of a working model of inclusive networking, which has potential to be developed into a theory.