Sverre Bagge

Ideas and narrative in Otto of Freising's Gesta Frederici

This article discusses the inner coherence of Otto of Freisings Gesta Frederici and, by implication, the wider question of the ‘mode of perception’ in medieval historiography. Is there any connection between the philosophical and theological reflections expressed in digressions and explicit statements, and the apparently scattered and disconnected entries in his narrative? The answer to this question is positive. Gesta Frederici is carefully composed around a number of key episodes, connected to one another on the allegorical and typological level, which bring out Ottos central message about Frederick restoring the right order of the world. Book I describes the crisis in Church and Empire while Book II shows how Frederick heals this crisis by bringing peace in the Empire, governing in close cooperation with the princes, and uniting pope and emperor in close friendship for the benefit of the Church.

The autobiography of Abelard and medieval individualism

This article discusses Abelards Historia Calamitatum in connection with the debate on ‘the individual’ or ‘individualism’ in the Middle Ages, which has been going on between adherents of ‘the Renaissance of the Twelfth Century’ and scholars placing the emergence of the modern individual in more recent periods. The conclusion largely supports the latter point of view. Abelard does not tell a continuous story of his life, he does not describe a conversion or a new understanding of his own self as the result of his tragic experience and, as an intellectual, he does not emphasize his own independent thinking in opposition to his surroundings. By contrast, he understands his own life through models derived from sacred history, according to the contemporary idea of typology. However, his vivid description of the tragic events of his life and of his own reactions to them contains a strong element of subjectivity and his emphasis on merit rather than status when competing with other intellectuals is in a certain...

Warrior, King, and Saint: The Medieval Histories about St. Óláfr Haraldsson

The following article deals with the medieval literature about St. Óláfr Haraldsson (king 1015–30). Its aim is neither to discover the truth about Óláfr nor to solve the difficult problem of the textual relationship between the various works about him, but to examine the tradition as such. I intend to trace its development from the vague references to Óláfr’s life and reign in Passio Olavi (c. 1175) to the detailed narrative in Snorri Sturluson’s Separate Saga (c. 1225) and Heimskringla (c. 1230). I shall start with an overview of the main stages in the tradition and then turn to some crucial episodes that illustrate some of the main differences between the works. Finally, I shall discuss the various pictures of Óláfr and his reign, the relationship between the saint, the king, and the warrior and politician, as well as the understanding of the conflicts in which he was involved.

The Model Emperor: Einhard’s Charlemagne in Widukind and Rahewin

The article discusses the use of Einhard’s portrait of Charlemagne in two later sources, Widukind’s characterization of Otto the Great and Rahewin’s of Frederick Barbarossa. Einhard’s portrait is in turn influenced by Suetonius, notably his portrait of Augustus. Although aiming at presenting Charles in Roman glory, Einhard also gives a detailed and largely matter-of-fact picture of his hero. His two successors handle this material in very different ways. Widukind develops it into a picture of Otto as a charismatic warrior hero, whereas Rahewin consistently alludes to Einhard, without making Frederick very similar to Charles. The reason for this use of Charles is Rahewin’s wish to depict Frederick as the restorer of the Roman Empire, a crucial theme in the narrative of Rahewin’s as well as Otto’s part of the Gesta Frederici. Here Rahewin differs from Widukind, who omits most of Einhard’s references to Rome. Finally, the article discusses the relationship between the portraits and the narrative of the three...

Ethics, Politics, and Providence in William Of Malmesbury’s Historia Novella

The article discusses historical interpretation in William of Malmesbury’s Historia Novella. In contrast to some earlier scholars, the author concludes that William’s perspective is consistently religious and ethical. William’s narrative and selection of facts are intended to show that Mathilda is the only lawful candidate to the English throne and that this is the reason for Earl Robert of Gloucester, William’s patron, to support her. In his preface, written shortly after Mathilda’s and Robert’s apparent victory in 1141, William explains this victory as the result of God’s intervention. However, the setback later the same year forced him to change this interpretation. He now turns to fortuna as the explanation in the preface to Book 3, while making Robert’s defeat into a victory by pointing to his noble behavior in adversity. Finally, the relationship between God’s providence and fortuna in William’s text is discussed against the background of some contemporary examples.

AIMS AND MEANS IN THE INTER‐NORDIC CONFLICTS 1302–1319

The paper deals with the conflicts from 1302–1319 between King Birger of Sweden and his two younger brothers, the Dukes Erik and Valdemar, which also involved the kings of the two other Nordic countries, King Erik Menved of Denmark on the side of his brother‐in‐law, King Birger, and King Håkon V of Norway, mostly in alliance with the Swedish dukes. It attempts to trace the main aims of the participants, which turn out to be consistent as well as relatively realistic and in which dynastic interests had priority over national and territorial ones. In addition to the struggle over the division of Sweden, the most important issue was who was to marry Håkon Vs daughter Ingebjørg who was likely to inherit the kingdom of Norway. Erik Menveds success in gaining this prize for his nephew makes him the main winner and Håkon V the main loser in the peace of Hälsingborg in 1310, whereas this situation changed in Håkons and Duke Eriks favour when Erik married Ingebjørg in 1312 and Erik Menved had to accept the marriage the year after. Most probably, this success for the dukes led to their fall in 1317–1318, which in turn united the Swedish aristocracy behind Duke Eriks son Magnus who in 1319 became king of both Norway and Sweden, thus fulfilling all Håkon Vs wishes for the future of his dynasty. Against this background, the article discusses contemporary political culture, the relationship between military and diplomatic means, the importance of dynasties and marriage alliances and the relationship between monarchy and aristocracy.