Sylke W. M. Toll

Executive Functions as Predictors of Math Learning Disabilities

In the past years, an increasing number of studies have investigated executive functions as predictors of individual differences in mathematical abilities. The present longitudinal study was designed to investigate whether the executive functions shifting, inhibition, and working memory differ between low achieving and typically achieving children and whether these executive functions can be seen as precursors to math learning disabilities in children. Furthermore, the predictive value of working memory ability compared to preparatory mathematical abilities was examined. Two classifications were made based on (persistent) mathematical ability in first and second grade. Repeated measures analyses and discriminant analyses were used to investigate which functions predicted group membership best. Group differences in performance were found on one inhibition and three working memory tasks. The working memory tasks predicted math learning disabilities, even over and above the predictive value of preparatory mathematical abilities.

The Developmental Relationship Between Language and Low Early Numeracy Skills Throughout Kindergarten

The relationship between basic oral language and early numeracy has been studied extensively, but results hardly include kindergartners’ math language, which might mediate this relationship. The aim of this study was to investigate the development of basic language skills—specifically, math language and low early numeracy. Dutch children (4–5 years old; N = 1,030) were screened for having low early numeracy skills, and low performers (n = 199) were followed for 2 years and tested four times throughout kindergarten. The development of general language skills and early numeracy were investigated with latent growth modeling, revealing a significant mutual relationship. Further, the relationship between basic language and early numeracy was mediated by kindergartners’ specific math language, suggesting that specific math language has a key role in the early numeracy learning process.

Accelerating the early numeracy development of kindergartners with limited working memory skills through remedial education

BACKGROUND Young children with limited working memory skills are a special interest group among all children that score below average on early numeracy tests. This study examines the effect of accelerating the early numeracy development of these children through remedial education, by comparing them with children with typically working memory skills and early numeracy abilities below average. METHOD Selected from a sample of 933 children, children with early numeracy ability below average are assigned into four groups: two intervention groups with limited working memory skills (IL-group) or typical working memory skills (IT-group), and two control groups with limited working memory skills (CL-group) or typical working memory skills (CT-group). All four groups were followed for a period of 1.5 years. Four measurements were carried out. CONCLUSION The remedial program proved to be similarly effective for the IL-group and the IT-group. The findings are discussed in the light of several limitations and implications.

Early Numeracy Intervention for Low-Performing Kindergartners

Early numeracy in kindergarten has proven to be a strong predictor of mathematical achievement. The aims of this study were to test the effectiveness of a remedial numeracy program for children who were low performing and to evaluate the role of visual and verbal working memory in the development of numeracy. The study included 196 kindergartners. Children with a pretest numeracy score falling below the 50th percentile were matched and randomly assigned to an intervention group and a control group. The intervention group obtained meaningful and statistically significantly higher adjusted outcome numeracy scores at the posttest stage than did the control group. This result, however, was not found among the group of children falling below the 25th percentile at the pretest stage. Verbal working memory, but not visual working memory, might best account for differences in the growth measured within the intervention group.

Associative Cognitive Factors of Math Problems in Students Diagnosed With Developmental Dyscalculia

The Dutch protocol, ‘Dyscalculia: Diagnostics for Behavioral Professionals’ (DDBP protocol; Van Luit et al., 2014), describes how behavioral experts can examine whether a student has developmental dyscalculia (DD), based on three criteria: severity, discrepancy, and resistance. In addition to distinguishing the criteria necessary for diagnosis, the protocol provides guidance on formulating hypotheses by describing and operationalising four possible associative cognitive factors of math problems: planning skills, naming speed, short-term and/or working memory, and attention. The current exploratory and descriptive research aims to describe the frequency of these four primary associative cognitive factors in students with DD from the Netherlands. Descriptive data from 84 students aged 8–18 years showed that deficits in naming speed (in particular, in naming numbers) were the most frequent explanation of math problems in children with DD, followed by deficits in short-term/working memory and planning skills. Deficits in attention were the least frequent. The findings are explained in light of current literature, and suggestions for follow-up research are presented.