Sylvia Rosenfield

Implementation Science and School Psychology

The APA Division 16 Working Group on Translating Science to Practice contends that implementation science is essential to the process of translating evidence-based interventions (EBIs) into the unique context of the schools, and that increasing attention to implementation will lead to the improvement of school psychological services and school learning environments. Key elements of implementation and implementation science are described. Four critical issues for implementation science in school psychology are presented: barriers to implementation, improving intervention fidelity and identifying core intervention components, implementation with diverse client populations, and implementation in diverse settings. What is known and what researchers need to investigate for each set of issues is addressed. A discussion of implementation science methods and measures is included. Finally, implications for research, training and practice are presented.

Developing Instructional Consultants: From Novice to Competent to Expert

The development of instructional consultants requires both an understanding of the essential elements of instructional consultation (IC) and a conceptual model for development of skills. IC is a collaborative stage-based process that focuses on academic and behavioral concerns from an ecological perspective. It also emphasizes the importance of language and working relationships in the consultation process. In the first level of development, novice consultants develop awareness and conceptual understanding, as well as limited skills. Competency is achieved through application of skills in school settings with supervision that focuses, with the assistance of audiotaping the consultation sessions, on language and relationship issues as well as content. Advanced skills and proficiency emerge during extended opportunity for practice, supervision and research among those individuals who become interested in developing expertise in this domain of practice. Most training programs provide limited opportunities for competency and expertise to be developed past the novice level. It is essential to enhance educational opportunities and options if consultation practice is to achieve its full potential.

A Survey of Preservice Consultation Training in School Psychology Programs.

In this study, we investigated the state of preservice consultation training and supervision in school psychology programs. Consultation trainers or supervisors in school psychology programs were surveyed to determine how they prepared students for working as consultants. Specifically addressed were the theoretical models or formats of consultation training used and the structure of such training. In addition, information regarding the supervision process was explored. Through the results of the survey, we found that nondoctoral and doctoral training programs offered more consultation-specific coursework and field experience than they have in the past. Regarding supervision, the majority of programs did not provide consultation students with regular (weekly or biweekly) or individualized supervision, and supervision techniques such as tape recording were rarely implemented. The results of this study should create an awareness of the recent trends in consultation training and supervision. The study serves as an updated baseline against which improvement of consultation training and supervision, particularly with regard to the need for additional supervisory techniques, can be assessed in the future.

A Multi-Dimensional Framework for Evaluation of Instructional Consultation Teams

ABSTRACT This article describes a multidimensional framework for evaluating team-based services in schools. The theory and literature on developmental, causal and confirmatory program evaluation are discussed as the foundation for this framework. The model of Instructional Consultation Teams (IC-Teams) is presented as an illustration of how program evaluation research supports program development and provides evidence of program impact. The inferred impact of IC-Teams upon over-referral and identification of students for special education, especially minority students, is investigated using the confirmatory criteria of consistency. Three studies investigating the impact of IC-Teams upon special education referrals of the IC-Team model are presented. The studies, conducted across three implementations of the program with three different methodologies, demonstrated decreases in the referral, evaluation and placement of students in special education. The need for additional research and limits of the approach are discussed.

Teachers’ Perception of Satisfaction, Skill Development, and Skill Application After Instructional Consultation Services

A primary hypothesized outcome of consultee-centered consultation, including instructional consultation (IC), is that consultees will become more skilled. However, these claims have not been well researched. Data from 274 teachers implementing IC were analyzed to investigate perceptions of satisfaction and skill development. Results indicated that teachers were highly satisfied, perceived outcomes to meet or exceed their expectations, and felt confident about handling similar problems in the future. The majority reported learning one or more skills or strategies from participating and indicated generalization of skills learned from IC to other students. Relationships between satisfaction, generalization, and perceived outcomes are also presented. Although based on descriptive methodology, this analysis of teachers’ perceptions of IC provides a window into their experiences.

Crafting usable knowledge.

Current emphasis on evaluating interventions does not address the problems of dissemination and utilization of these interventions, particularly in complex settings such as schools. Research on interventions is of value, but its generalizability to specific contexts is limited. Further, little is known about actual use of empirically supported interventions in practice settings. These concerns suggest the following: (a) There is a need to examine the dissemination process, including practitioner education and the development of a consumer information mindset by researchers; (b) guidance about selecting interventions would benefit from a systematic problem-solving orientation; and (c) research training and methodology need to be augmented with strategies and techniques suitable for developing an empirical approach to practice. These issues are addressed with specific examples drawn from school-based practice.

Blueprints on the Future of Training and Practice in School Psychology: What Do They Say About Educational and Psychological Consultation?

School psychology training and practice have been substantially influenced by a series of documents referred to as Blueprints. The second edition of the Blueprint directly led to the development of training standards for school psychology that addressed several domains of practice. Both preceding and simultaneous to the Blueprint series were several calls for school psychology to be more consultative in its service delivery, but the practice remained largely unchanged. This article examined the emphasis on consultation within the three Blueprints and concluded that each document increased its focus on consultation even more than its immediate predecessor. Moreover, the article described the development of the three Blueprints, the model for training and practice outlined in the third installment of the Blueprint series, and changes required in preservice and inservice training that would be necessary for the practice to adhere to the domains outlined in the documents.

Clinical Supervision of Consultation

Abstract Recently, interest in consultation training has begun to grow in the literature after a long period of neglect. Although a case has been made in the literature for improving the clinical supervision of consultation skills, the process of supervising the development of consultation skills continues to receive little attention. In this article, strategies for clinical supervision of consultation skills will be described along a developmental framework, with examples drawn from school-based consultation. The importance of audio or videotaping early skill development in consultation will be stressed. The use of distance learning technology to assist practitioners in building their skills, given the lack of preservice training and supervision for many, will also be addressed.

Effect of Degree of Challenge on Reading Performance

The relationship of reading performance to difficulty level of material was the focus of this study. Participants in the study were 83 fourth graders from four urban schools. Each student was administered passages at different levels of challenge (independent, instructional, frustration) based on word identification accuracy. Passages were scored for word identification accuracy and rate. Comprehension was assessed through open-ended questions. There was a significant correlation between reading rate and word recognition accuracy. However, reading rate and comprehension did not correlate significantly. Implications of these findings for assessing reading progress for urban fourth grade students are discussed.

Establishing Reliability for Coding Implementation Concerns of School-Based Teams from Audiotapes

A useful methodology for coding themes directly from audiotape is described, and issues and methods by which reliability can be established are presented. Attention is given to both the importance of audiotape use in qualitative research and the ways in which audiotape use can be expanded. Comparison is made between reliability estimates from coding themes directly from audiotape and coding themes from transcripts. A study is presented in which the reliability of direct coding from audiotapes, to develop conceptual categories and code concerns of professionals being trained on school-based support teams, was evaluated The results of this study suggest that the direct coding of audiotapes provides the qualitative researcher with another reliable option in the collection and analysis of data. Research implications are discussed