T. Alafia Samuels

Factors Associated With Intensification of Oral Diabetes Medications in Primary Care Provider-Patient Dyads: A Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE—Although suboptimal glycemic control is known to be common in diabetic adults, few studies have evaluated factors at the level of the physician-patient encounter. Our objective was to identify novel visit-based factors associated with intensification of oral diabetes medications in diabetic adults. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—We conducted a nonconcurrent prospective cohort study of 121 patients with type 2 diabetes and hyperglycemia (A1C ≥8%) enrolled in an academically affiliated managed-care program. Over a 24-month interval (1999–2001), we identified 574 hyperglycemic visits. We measured treatment intensification and factors associated with intensification at each visit. RESULTS—Provider-patient dyads intensified oral diabetes treatment in only 128 (22%) of 574 hyperglycemic visits. As expected, worse glycemia was an important predictor of intensification. Treatment was more likely to be intensified for patients with visits that were “routine” (odds ratio [OR] 2.55 [95% CI 1.49–4.38]), for patients taking two or more oral diabetes drugs (2.82 [1.74–4.56]), or for patients with longer intervals between visits (OR per 30 days 1.05 [1.00–1.10]). In contrast, patients with less recent A1C measurements (OR >30 days before the visit 0.53 [0.34–0.85]), patients with a higher number of prior visits (OR per prior visit 0.94 [0.88–1.00]), and African American patients (0.59 [0.35–1.00]) were less likely to have treatment intensified. CONCLUSIONS—Failure to intensify oral diabetes treatment is common in diabetes care. Quality improvement measures in type 2 diabetes should focus on overcoming inertia, improving continuity of care, and reducing racial disparities.

Raising the priority of chronic noncommunicable diseases in the Caribbean

The Caribbeans long history of cooperation in health now focuses on noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), given that Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries have the highest NCD burden in the Americas. The heads of government convened a first in the world one-day summit on NCDs, largely due to advocacy by George Alleyne and others, on the health, social, and economic impact of NCDs; the need for upstream multisectoral interventions to address the common, multifactoral risks; and the need for increased global attention to NCDs. Implementation of the NCD Summit Declaration mandates was most effective in larger countries with greater capacity, but countries of all sizes performed well, when they had regional or global support. Progress was limited in regional approaches to food security, labeling, and elimination of trans fats. Inadequate funding stymied several resource-dependent interventions. Monitoring mechanisms were established, but more concrete goals are needed, especially for actions of nonhealth government agencies.

Social distribution of diabetes, hypertension and related risk factors in Barbados: a cross-sectional study

Objective To describe the distribution of diabetes, hypertension and related behavioural and biological risk factors in adults in Barbados by gender, education and occupation. Design Multistage probability sampling was used to select a representative sample of the adult population (≥25 years). Participants were interviewed using standard questionnaires, underwent anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, and provided fasting blood for glucose and cholesterol measurements. Standard WHO definitions were used. Data were weighted for sampling and non-response, and were age and sex standardised to the 2010 Barbados population. Weighted prevalence estimates were calculated, and prevalence ratios were calculated for behavioural and biological risk factors by demographic and socioeconomic group. Results Study response rate was 55.0%, with 764 women, 470 men. Prevalence of obesity was 33.8% (95% CI 30.7% to 37.1%); hypertension 40.6% (95% CI 36.5% to 44.9%); and diabetes 18.7% (95% CI 16.2% to 21.4%). Compared with women, men were less likely to be obese (prevalence ratio 0.5; 95% CI 0.4 to 0.7), or physically inactive (0.5; 0.4 to 0.6), but more likely to smoke tobacco (4.1; 2.5 to 6.7) and consume large amounts of alcohol in a single episode (4.6; 2.7 to 7.6). Both diabetes (0.83; 0.65 to 1.05) and hypertension (0.89; 0.79 to 1.02) were lower in men, but not significantly so. In women, higher educational level was related to higher fruit and vegetable intake, more physical activity, less diabetes and less hypercholesterolaemia (p 0.01–0.04). In men, higher education was related only to less smoking (p 0.04). Differences by occupation were limited to smoking in men and hypercholesterolaemia in women. Conclusions In this developing country population, sex appears to be a much stronger determinant of behavioural risk factors, as well as obesity and its related risks, than education or occupation. These findings have implications for meeting the commitments made in the 2011 Rio Political Declaration, to eliminate health inequities.

Monitoring compliance with high-level commitments in health: the case of the CARICOM Summit on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases

The CARICOM Summit on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases - the first government summit ever devoted to noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) - was convened by the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) in Trinidad and Tobago in September 2007. Leaders in attendance issued the declaration of Port of Spain, a call for the prevention and control of four major NCDs and their risk factors. An accountability instrument for monitoring compliance with summit commitments was developed for CARICOM by the University of the West Indies in 2008 and revised in 2010. The instrument - a one-page colour-coded grid with 26 progress indicators - is updated annually by focal points in Caribbean health ministries, verified by each countrys chief medical officer and presented to the annual Caucus of Caribbean Community Ministers of Health. In this study, the G8 Research Groups methods for assessing compliance were applied to the 2009 reporting grid to assess each countrys performance. Given the success of the CARICOM Summit, a United Nations high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the prevention and control of NCDs was held in September 2011. In May 2013 the World Health Assembly adopted nine global targets and 25 indicators to measure progress in NCD control. This study shows that the CARICOM monitoring grid can be used to document progress on such indicators quickly and comprehensibly. An annual reporting mechanism is essential to encourage steady progress and highlight areas needing correction. This paper underscores the importance of accountability mechanisms for encouraging and monitoring compliance with the collective political commitments acquired at the highest level.

Female gender is a social determinant of diabetes in the Caribbean: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background Diabetes (DM) is estimated to affect 10–15% of the adult population in the Caribbean. Preventive efforts require population wide measures to address its social determinants. We undertook a systematic review to determine current knowledge about the social distribution of diabetes, its risk factors and major complications in the Caribbean. This paper describes our findings on the distribution by gender. Methods We searched Medline, Embase and five databases through the Virtual Health Library, for Caribbean studies published between 2007 and 2013 that described the distribution by gender for: known risk factors for Type 2 DM, prevalence of DM, and DM control or complications. PRISMA guidance on reporting systematic reviews on health equity was followed. Only quantitative studies (n>50) were included; each was assessed for risk of bias. Meta-analyses were performed, where appropriate, on studies with a low or medium risk of bias, using random effects models. Results We found 50 articles from 27 studies, yielding 118 relationships between gender and the outcomes. Women were more likely to have DM, obesity, be less physically active but less likely to smoke. In meta-analyses of good quality population-based studies odds ratios for women vs. men for DM, obesity and smoking were: 1.65 (95% CI 1.43, 1.91), 3.10 (2.43, 3.94), and 0.24 (0.17, 0.34). Three studies found men more likely to have better glycaemic control but only one achieved statistical significance. Conclusion and Implications Female gender is a determinant of DM prevalence in the Caribbean. In the vast majority of world regions women are at a similar or lower risk of type 2 diabetes than men, even when obesity is higher in women. Caribbean female excess of diabetes may be due to a much greater excess of risk factors in women, especially obesity. These findings have major implications for preventive policies and research.

Policy initiatives, culture and the prevention and control of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in the Caribbean

Objective. To explore interactions between disease burden, culture and the policy response to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) within the Caribbean, a region with some of the highest prevalence rates, morbidity and mortality from NCDs in the Americas. Methods. We undertook a wide ranging narrative review, drawing on a variety of peer reviewed, government and intergovernmental literature. Results. Although the Caribbean is highly diverse, linguistically and ethnically, it is possible to show how ‘culture’ at the macro-level has been shaped by shared historic, economic and political experiences and ties. We suggest four broad groupings of countries: the English-speaking Caribbean Community (CARICOM); the small island states that are still colonies or departments of colonial powers; three large-Spanish speaking countries; and Haiti, which although part of CARICOM is culturally distinct. We explore how NCD health policies in the region stem from and are influenced by the broad characteristics of these groupings, albeit played out in varied ways in individual countries. For example, the Port of Spain declaration (2007) on NCDs can be understood as the product of the co-operative and collaborative relationships with CARICOM, which are based on a shared broad culture. We note, however, that studies investigating the relationships between the formation of NCD policy and culture (at any level) are scarce. Conclusion. Within the Caribbean region it is possible to discern relationships between culture at the macro-level and the formation of NCD policy. However, there is little work that directly assesses the interactions between culture and NCD policy formation. The Caribbean with its cultural diversity and high burden of NCDs provides an ideal environment within which to undertake further studies to better understand the interactions between culture and health policy formation.

Factors associated with self-rated health status among university students from 26 low, middle and high income countries

The aim of this study was to investigate self-reported health status and associated factors in low, middle and high income countries. Using anonymous questionnaires, data were collected in a cross-sectional survey from 19 811 undergraduate university students (mean age=20.8, SD=2.8) from 27 universities in 26 countries across Asia, Africa and the Americas. Results indicate that the overall self-rated health status score was 3.0 (range 1–5). Generally, university students from study countries of the Caribbean, South America and North Africa, Near East and Central Asia had greater self-rated health status scores than students from study countries in Asia. In multivariate stepwise linear regression analysis, older age, coming from an upper middle income or high income country, higher personal control, better mental health (not having sleep problems, and having no or fewer PTSD symptoms), and having normal weight predicted better self-rated health status. Paradoxically, a poor healthy dietary score and low physical activity were also associated with better self-rated health status. In comparing self-rated health status across a large sample of students across many countries, associations were found between sociodemographic, psycho-social and health related variables and self-rated health status.

The Development of Public Policies to Address Non-communicable Diseases in the Caribbean Country of Barbados: The Importance of Problem Framing and Policy Entrepreneurs

Background: Government policy measures have a key role to play in the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The Caribbean, a middle-income region, has the highest per capita burden of NCDs in the Americas. Our aim was to examine policy development and implementation between the years 2000 and 2013 on NCD prevention and control in Barbados, and to investigate factors promoting, and hindering, success. Methods: A qualitative case study design was used involving a structured policy document review and semi-structured interviews with key informants, identified through stakeholder analysis and ‘cascading.’ Documents were abstracted into a standard form. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim and underwent framework analysis, guided by the multiple streams framework (MSF). There were 25 key informants, from the Ministry of Health (MoH), other government Ministries, civil society organisations, and the private sector. Results: A significant policy window opened between 2005 and 2007 in which new posts to address NCDs were created in the MoH, and a government supported multi-sectoral national NCD commission was established. Factors contributing to this government commitment and funding included a high level of awareness, throughout society, of the NCD burden, including media coverage of local research findings; the availability of policy recommendations by international bodies that could be adopted locally, notably the framework convention on tobacco control (FCTC); and the activities of local highly respected policy entrepreneurs with access to senior politicians, who were able to bring together political concern for the problem with potential policy solutions. However, factors were also identified that hindered multi-sectoral policy development in several areas, including around nutrition, physical activity, and alcohol. These included a lack of consensus (valence) on the nature of the problem, often framed as being predominantly one of individuals needing to take responsibility for their health rather than requiring government-led environmental changes; lack of appropriate detailed policy guidance for local adaptation; conflicts with other political priorities, such as production and export of alcohol, and political reluctance to use legislative and fiscal measures. Conclusion: The study’s findings indicate mechanisms to promote and support NCD policy development in the Caribbean and similar settings.

Provider Workload and Multiple Morbidities in the Caribbean and South Africa

This chapter discusses the current state of healthcare, challenges and potential local and cross-national solutions related to multiple morbidity in low and middle income countries and vulnerable populations in high income countries, based on interdisciplinary research of provider workload in South Africa and the Caribbean. With a high chronic and noncommunicable disease (NCD) and HIV burden in both settings, it is not uncommon to find patients having this double burden of disease. Additionally, patient resiliency is exacerbated by the multiplication of both demands made by the interactions from treatment modalities and multiple service providers. The Cumulative Complexity Model (CCM) posits that as the burden of disease and resulting workload increase, the patient capacity to respond to it diminishes. In middle and high-income countries, a dedicated system of care for people living with HIV/AIDS was developed in parallel to existing systems of care for NCDs, which has been successful in increasing advocacy, political will, and healthcare worker empowerment. We explore the application of this model across settings, along with other potential solutions.

Prevalence and phenotype of diabetes and prediabetes using fasting glucose vs HbA1c in a Caribbean population.

BACKGROUND Both fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and HbA1c are recommended for the diagnosis of diabetes and prediabetes by the American Diabetes Association (ADA), and for diabetes by the World Health Organization. The ADA guidance is influential on clinical practice in many developing countries, including in the Caribbean and Latin America. We aimed to compare the prevalence and characteristics of individuals identified as having diabetes and prediabetes by FPG and HbA1c in a predominantly African ancestry Caribbean population. METHODS A representative population-based sample of 1234 adults (≥25 years of age) resident in Barbados was recruited. Standard methods with appropriate quality control were used to collect data on height, weight, blood pressure, fasting lipids and history of diagnosed diabetes, and to measure fasting glucose and HbA1c. Those with previously diagnosed diabetes (n = 192) were excluded from the analyses. Diabetes was defined as: FPG ≥7.0 mmol/L or HbA1c ≥6.5%; prediabetes as: FPG ≥5.6 to <7mmol/L or HbA1c ≥5.7 to <6.5%. RESULTS Complete data were available on 939 participants without previously diagnosed diabetes. The prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes was higher, but not significantly so, by HbA1c (4.9%, 95% CI 3.5, 6.8) vs FPG (3.5%, 2.4, 5.1). Overall 79 individuals had diabetes by either measure, but only 21 on both. The prevalence of prediabetes was higher by HbA1c compared to FPG: 41.7% (37.9, 45.6) vs 15.0% (12.8, 17.5). Overall 558 individuals had prediabetes by either measure, but only 107 on both. HbA1c, but not FPG, was significantly higher in women than men; and FPG, but not HbA1c, was significantly associated with raised triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol. CONCLUSION The agreement between FPG and HbA1c defined hyperglycaemia is poor. In addition, there are some differences in the phenotype of those identified, and HbA1c gives a much higher prevalence of prediabetes. The routine use of HbA1c for screening and diagnosis in this population would have major implications for clinical and public health policies and resources. Given the lack of robust evidence, particularly for prediabetes, on whether intervention in the individuals identified would improve outcomes, this approach to screening and diagnosis cannot be currently recommended for this population.