T H Friend

Behavioral assessment of horses in therapeutic riding programs

Abstract A behavioral assessment of horses who were being used and not used in therapeutic riding programs was conducted to help determine useful methods of selecting horses for use in therapeutic riding programs. A total of 103 horses (76 horses from five therapeutic riding centers and 27 non-therapeutic riding horses from four sites) were used. Temperament survey for each horse were completed by three riding instructors at each therapeutic riding center or by the individual most knowledgeable about the horse at the other sites. Twenty personality traits from the survey were used to quantify temperament. Concentrations of plasma cortisol, norepinephrine and epinephrine were also measured in each horse. A reactivity test was then conducted which involved introducing three novel stimuli: a walking and vocalizing toy pig placed on a cardboard surface in front of the horse for 20 s; popping a balloon near the horses flank area; and suddenly opening an umbrella and holding it open in front of the horse for 20 s. Reactions (expressions, vocalizations and movement) to each of the stimuli were scored and used to calculate an average reactivity score for each horse. The therapeutic riding instructors did not often agree on the temperament of their centers horses. The personality trait ratings made by the therapeutic riding instructors at each center were on average significantly correlated ( P r >0.52) for only 37.8% of the horses for any two instructors and 7.8% for three instructors. No significant correlations were found between temperament, reactivity, and the hormone concentrations ( r P P P =0.08). The difference in ratings among riding instructors indicates a need for more collaboration between instructors when evaluating horse temperament. This study also indicates that it was very difficult to objectively determine the suitability of horses for therapeutic riding programs regarding their temperament and reactivity, probably because other traits (e.g., smoothness of gait) are also considered very important.

Hierarchical Phenotypic and Epigenetic Variation in Cloned Swine

Abstract Cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer can result in the birth of animals with phenotypic and gene expression abnormalities. We compared adult cloned pigs and adult pigs from naturally bred control females using a series of physiological and genetic parameters, including detailed methylation profiles of selected genomic regions. Phenotypic and genetic analyses indicated that there are two classes of traits, one in which the cloned pigs have less variation than controls and another characterized by variation that is equally high in cloned and control pigs. Although cloning creates animals within the normal phenotypic range, it increases the variability associated with some traits. This finding is contrary to the expectation that cloning can be used to reduce the size of groups involved in animal experimentation and to reproduce an animal, including a pet, with a homogenous set of desired traits.

The effect of orientation during trailer transport on heart rate, cortisol and balance in horses

Abstract Sixteen same-sex pairs of Quarter Horse and Quarter Horse-cross yearlings (eight pairs during each of two trials, 1 year apart) were transported for 17.8 ± 0.52 min over a standard course with one horse facing in the direction of travel and one facing the opposite direction. The orientation of the horses in each trial was alternated with respect to the side of the trailer (float). Heart rates were monitored continuously using a strip chart recorder and were determined for the following events during each trip: (1) after the horses were loaded, but just prior to beginning the trip; (2) immediately after the initial movement of the trailer; (3) during travel over smooth roads near the start and near the end of the trip; (4) before and after an abrupt stop; (5) the mean for the entire trip. During the second trial, plasma concentrations of cortisol and thyroxine (T 4 ) were determined in blood samples taken via jugular puncture in the holding paddock prior to any handling beyond catching, in the trailer prior to hauling and in the trailer immediately after the trip. Observers riding inside the trailer recorded how often the horses impacted the sides and ends of the trailer, lost their balance, pawed, vocalized or defecated. Rear facing horses had fewer side and total impacts and losses of balance( P P P

Effects of freeze or hot-iron branding of Angus calves on some physiological and behavioral indicators of stress

Twenty-four Angus calves averaging 293 ± 38 kg were either hot-iron branded (H), freeze branded (F), or served as a sham (S). Calves were blocked for temperament, weight, and sex, and randomly assigned to day and order in which treatments were applied. To reduce stress from handling at treatment time, each calf was herded through the squeeze chute for 5 days prior to the experiment. Jugular cannulae were established in each calf 1 day prior to application of treatment. Blood samples and heart rate were obtained at −5 and −3 min prior to and 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 min after calves were branded on the hip. Mean plasma cortisol concentration increased for all treatments during the sampling times (P = 0.0001). Mean plasma epinephrine concentration was greater (P < 0.01) for H calves at 0.5 min after branding than either S or F calves. Hot-iron branded calves had greater (P < 0.02) mean heart rate during branding and 30 s post-branding than did either S or F calves. The escape-avoidance reaction of H calves, quantified as the amount of vertical movement the calf exhibited during branding, was also greater (P < 0.05) than either the F or S calves. Five H calves, four F calves, and no S calves vocalized during treatment. The greater escape-avoidance reaction as well as the elevated heart rate and plasma epinephrine concentration of the H calves indicate that a greater pain sensation is perceived by hot-iron branded Angus cattle.

Behavioral responses of mares to short-term confinement and social isolation

Thirty-six mares, blocked by age and temperament score, were assigned to one of three treatment groups: pasture (P); confinement stalls (C), allowing social contact; isolation stalls (ISS), allowing no contact with conspecifics. After 48 h on treatment, the mares were observed in situ for 1 h. Medium temperament and highly reactive ISS mares spent more time eating grain (P<0.01) and exhibited more grain-eating bouts (P<0.03) than P and C mares. Calm P mares had longer forage-eating bouts than C and ISS mares (P<0.02). During a 15 min open-field test in a 23 m × 23 m pen after 72 h on treatment, ISS mares traveled farther (P<0.005) than C and P mares, spent more total time trotting (P<0.01) than C and P mares, and exhibited a greater number of trotting bouts (P<0.01) than both C and P mares. Isolated mares spent less total time standing during the open-field test than C (P<0.05) and P (P<0.01) mares, but exhibited a greater number of standing bouts than C (P<0.05) and P (P<0.01) mares. Isolated mares also exhibited a greater number of total activity bouts (P<0.01) during the open-field test than both C and P mares; P mares also exhibited fewer activity bouts than C mares (P<0.1). Results indicate that mares kept in confined and isolated environments showed greater motivation for movement and performance of a greater number of activities than those maintained on pasture with conspecifics.

Recognizing behavioral needs

Abstract Behavioral needs may be defined as behaviors that are motivated largely by internal stimuli and, if an animal is prevented from performing them for prolonged periods, the individuals welfare may be compromised. The slow assimilation of advances in ethology into evolving psychological theories during the early development of psychology led to a general view of behavior that precluded the concept of behavioral needs. The relative need to perform a particular behavior has been estimated using the following techniques, in order from the least to the most specific and the strength of motivation (1) observation of a species under “natural” conditions; (2) observation of overt behavior under structured or restricted conditions; (3) requiring an animal to “work” for the opportunity to perform specific behaviors; (4) controlled behavioral deprivation followed by open-field testing; (5) quantification of physiological responses indicative of stress. Careful experimentation is necessary to determine where on the scale of “need” a particular behavior resides.

Relationship between feeding behavior and residual feed intake in growing Brangus heifers

Residual feed intake (RFI) is a measure of feed efficiency defined as the difference between actual feed intake and expected feed intake required for maintenance and production. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between RFI, feeding behavior, and other performance traits in growing heifers. Individual DMI was measured in Brangus heifers (n = 115) fed a roughage-based diet (ME = 2.0 Mcal/kg) for 70 d using Calan-gate feeders. Residual feed intake was computed as the residuals from linear regression of DMI on mid-test BW(0.75) and ADG. Heifers with the greatest (least efficient, n = 18) and least (most efficient, n = 18) RFI were identified for quantification of feeding behavior traits. Continuous video recordings were obtained for all heifers during d 28 through d 56 of the 70-d feeding trial. Video data of 2 replications of four 24-h periods, 2 wk apart, were analyzed for the focal heifers. A head-down feeding event was defined as a heifer positioned in the feeder with her head lowered. A meal included all head-down feeding events that were separated by less than 300 s. The mean RFI for the high- and low-RFI heifers were 1.00 and -1.03 +/- 0.03 kg/d, respectively. High-RFI heifers consumed 21.9% more (P < 0.0001) DM but had similar BW and ADG compared with low-RFI heifers. The high-RFI heifers spent less time in head-down feeding events per day (P < 0.0001; 124 vs. 152 +/- 4.3 min/d), consumed DM at a faster rate (99.6 vs. 62.8 +/- 3.3 g/min), and ate more often per day (119.1 vs. 90.5 +/- 3.9 head-down feeding events/d) compared with the low-RFI heifers; however, meal duration and frequency were not related to RFI. We conclude that feeding behavior related to head-down feeding events may be more useful as an indicator of RFI than the number of meal events.

Effect of partitioning pens on aggressive behavior of pigs regrouped at weaning

Two trials were conducted to evaluate the effect on agonistic behavior of a temporary partition to create a more complex pen for newly weaned, crossbred pigs. The partition, which contained two 20 × 30 cm ports, was placed diagonally across alternate pens within the same room. Pigs were assigned to pens by body weight. Short (< 10 s) and long (⩾ 10 s) fights and the number of lying pigs were quantified by direct observation for the first 3 h and again for 1 h at 24 and 48 h post-grouping. The number of scratches on each pig were counted 25 h post-grouping. The treatments did not influence aggressive behavior of the piglets. There was a significant difference (P = 0.003) in agonistic behavior between the two trials. Long fights were significantly correlated with ear (P = 0.05), shoulder (P = 0.03) and total (P = 0.03) scratches. The heavier pigs were associated with more shoulder (P = 0.006) and total (P = 0.04) scratches. When a fight occurred, the non-combatants frequently moved to the other side of the partition, but this was variable. No pigs were seen using corners to avoid aggression. Using a partition to make weaning pens into a more complex environment did not reduce agonistic behavior or injuries caused by agonistic behavior.

Effects of density on displacement, falls, injuries, and orientation during horse transportation

Three groups of slaughter-type horses, totaling 30 mares and 29 geldings, were used to determine density effects on displacement (distance moved during a stop), falls, injuries, and orientation using a single-deck, open-topped commercial semi-trailer. Each horse was assigned to one of two treatments: high density (1.28 m(2)/horse with 14 horses) or low density (2.23 m(2)/horse with eight horses). Both treatments occurred sequentially on the same day (treatment order was alternated each trial), using the middle 2.44x7.32 m compartment of a large semi-tractor trailer. The horses were transported for two laps around a 7.28-km course, averaging 25 min and 36+/-89 s. Each lap consisted of two 60 degrees turns, four 90 degrees turns, two 120 degrees turns, one 180 degrees turn, six hard brakes, and six rapid accelerations, which were more severe than conditions usually experienced in commercial transport. Displacement, falls, and orientation were recorded for each horse using overhead video cameras. Average displacement between the two densities was not different (P=0.47). The proportion of horses that fell in the high-density treatment (40%) was greater (P=0.046) than the low-density treatment (17%). The proportion of horses injured was greater (P=0.006) in high density (64%) than low density (29%). However, there was not a significant difference in the average severity of injury for the high-density treatment (1.77) versus the low-density treatment (0.92), P=0.48. Overall, the horses did not show a preference (P=0.38) for facing toward (47.5%) or away (40.7%) from the direction of travel and orientation did not differ (P0.18) between the high and low-density treatments. High stocking density of horses during transport increases the incidence of falls and injuries, and made it more difficult to get up when a subject was floored.

Validation of a system for monitoring feeding behavior in beef cattle.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of an electronic radio-frequency-identification-based system (GrowSafe System Ltd., Airdrie, Alberta, Canada) to measure feeding behavior traits in beef cattle fed a high-grain diet. Feeding behavior data were recorded by the GrowSafe system and time-lapse video using 10 heifers over a 6-d period. Observed bunk visit (BV) and meal event data (frequency and duration) were compared with electronic feeding behavior data generated by the GrowSafe system at 5 parameter settings (MPS; 30, 60, 100, 150, and 300 s), which are used to define the maximum duration between consecutive electronic identification recordings to initiate a subsequent BV event. A random coefficient model was used to compare video and electronic data using orthogonal contrasts. Video data were regressed on the electronic feeding behavior data to obtain an estimate of precision (r(2)) and other statistical estimates, including mean square error of prediction and concordance correlation coefficient, to access the adequacy of the electronic system predictions. The variation in MPS values affected BV data, but not meal event data. Electronic meal frequency and duration data were not different (P > 0.50) from observed values, and were not affected by electronic MPS values. The optimal MPS value for prediction of BV and meal event frequency and duration traits was 100 s. Our evaluation indicated the GrowSafe system 4000E was able to predict BV and meal event data when the 100-s MPS was used to analyze the feeding behavior data.