T.M.I. Mahlia

An alternative energy source from palm wastes industry for Malaysia and Indonesia

Abstract Malaysia and Indonesia are the largest producers of palm oil product. The palm oil industry has contributed the biggest income to the countries for many years. Moreover, palm oils has emerged as one of the most important oils in the world’s oils and the market of fats. About 90% of palm oil is used as food related products worldwide, and the other 10% is used for basic raw material for soap. There are more than a hundred palm oil processing mills in the two countries. As such, a lot of savings can be done by using the fiber and shell from the processing wastes as an alternative fuel for electricity generation for this industry. This paper deals with energy conversion from the fiber and shell of the industry wastes as an alternative energy source for the palm oil mill industry in the two countries mentioned. The study concentrates on using the fiber and shell obtained from the processing of palm oil as fuels for the boiler instead of fossil fuel. In addition, the possibility of excess air and fuel air ratio for the fiber and shell combustion process is also discussed. Furthermore, it has been found that the shell and fiber alone can supply more steam and electricity than is required. Some palm oil mills in Malaysia and Indonesia have applied this strategy successfully. The FELDA palm oil mill, with the capacity 30–60 tons FFB/h, in Sungai Tengi, Selangor, Malaysia has been selected for this research.

Emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia

Emissions in the process utilization produce adverse effects on the environment that influence human health, organism growth, climatic changes and so on. The Kyoto protocol, produced by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCC) in December 1997, prescribed a legally binding greenhouse gas emission target about 5% below their 1990 level. About 160 countries including Malaysia now adopt this protocol. Electricity generation is one of the main contributors to emissions in the country. In order to calculate the potential emissions produced by this activity, the type of fuel use should be identified. Malaysia hopes to gradually change fuel use from 70% gas, 15% coal, 10% hydro, and 5% petroleum in the year 2000 to 40% gas, 30% hydro, 29% coal, and only 1% petroleum by the year 2020. The changes in fuel type have changed the pattern of emission production. This study attempts to predict the pattern of emissions from 2002 to 2020 due to the changes in fuel use. The calculation is based on emissions for unit electricity generated and the percentages of fuel use for electricity generation. The study found that the electricity generation company has produced huge emissions from their power plants in this country.

Theory of energy efficiency standards and labels

Abstract Interests in establishing appliance standards are spreading from North America and Europe to many other countries around the world. Household appliance standards have more than three decades of history, but it became popular just after the oil price shock in the 1970s. Despite that, the literature on theory and methodology of developing energy efficiency standards is still limited. The theory and methodology of appliances efficiency programs are still being developed, and therefore, no single methodology is available for establishing standards and labels. The best approach may differ with goals, appliance type and local conditions. This paper discusses the theory and methodology involved in developing energy efficiency standards and labels for household appliances. It can be used also for other appliances with a few modifications. The initial step of setting a standard is proposing a test procedure followed by proposing suitable standards, labels and incentive programs for the appliances. The equations to calculate energy savings and the economic and environmental impact of standards and labels are also proposed. The theory and methodology presented in this study is suitable for a developing country that has a lack of available data and for a country that is considering revising existing standards and labels without major modification. Using this approach may shorten the time required for developing standards and labels compared with existing theory and procedure.

Cost-benefit analysis of implementing minimum energy efficiency standards for household refrigerator-freezers in Malaysia

Abstract The ownership of household electrical appliances especially refrigerator-freezer has increased rapidly in Malaysia. Almost every household in this country has a refrigerator-freezer. To reduce energy consumption in this sector the refrigerator is one of the top priorities of the energy efficiency program for household appliances. Malaysian authority is considering implementing minimum energy efficiency standards for refrigerator-freezer sometime in the coming year. This paper attempts to analyze cost–benefit of implementing minimum energy efficiency standards for household refrigerator-freezers in Malaysia. The calculations were made based on growth of ownership data for refrigerators in Malaysian households. The number of refrigerator-freezer has increased from 175,842 units in 1970 to 4,196,486 in 2000 and it will be about 11,293,043 in the year of 2020. Meanwhile it has accounted for about 26.3% of electricity consumption in a single household. Therefore, efficiency improvement of this appliance will give a significant impact in the future of electricity consumption in this country. Furthermore, it has been found that implementing an energy efficiency standard for household refrigerator-freezers is economically justified.

Accelerated Thermal Cycling Test of Microencapsulated Paraffin Wax/Polyaniline Made by Simple Preparation Method for Solar Thermal Energy Storage

Microencapsulated paraffin wax/polyaniline was prepared using a simple in situ polymerization technique, and its performance characteristics were investigated. Weight losses of samples were determined by Thermal Gravimetry Analysis (TGA). The microencapsulated samples with 23% and 49% paraffin showed less decomposition after 330 °C than with higher percentage of paraffin. These samples were then subjected to a thermal cycling test. Thermal properties of microencapsulated paraffin wax were evaluated by Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). Structure stability and compatibility of core and coating materials were also tested by Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR), and the surface morphology of the samples are shown by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). It has been found that the microencapsulated paraffin waxes show little change in the latent heat of fusion and melting temperature after one thousand thermal recycles. Besides, the chemical characteristics and structural profile remained constant after one thousand thermal cycling tests. Therefore, microencapsulated paraffin wax/polyaniline is a stable material that can be used for thermal energy storage systems.

The applicability of ISO household refrigerator–freezer energy test specifications in Malaysia

ISO 8187, ISO 8561, and ISO 7371 are the relevant test standards for household refrigerating appliances. This paper presents the possibility of introducing ISO household refrigerator–freezer test standards in Malaysia. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of room temperature, door opening, thermostat setting position, relative humidity, and loading on energy consumption of a household refrigerator–freezer. With the experimental data, a multiple regression equation is developed to investigate their combined effect. Finally, energy consumption according to the regression equation with optimum setting conditions is compared with ISO standard test conditions. Our comparison reveals that ISO refrigerator–freezer test standards are applicable with respect to Malaysian climatic conditions and usage patterns.

Second generation bioethanol potential from selected Malaysia's biodiversity biomasses: A review

Rising global temperature, worsening air quality and drastic declining of fossil fuel reserve are the inevitable phenomena from the disorganized energy management. Bioethanol is believed to clear out the effects as being an energy-derivable product sourced from renewable organic sources. Second generation bioethanol interests many researches from its unique source of inedible biomass, and this paper presents the potential of several selected biomasses from Malaysia case. As one of countries with rich biodiversity, Malaysia holds enormous potential in second generation bioethanol production from its various agricultural and forestry biomasses, which are the source of lignocellulosic and starch compounds. This paper reviews potentials of biomasses and potential ethanol yield from oil palm, paddy (rice), pineapple, banana and durian, as the common agricultural waste in the country but uncommon to be served as bioethanol feedstock, by calculating the theoretical conversion of cellulose, hemicellulose and starch components of the biomasses into bioethanol. Moreover, the potential of the biomasses as feedstock are discussed based on several reported works.

Potential electricity savings by implementing minimum energy efficiency standards for room air conditioners in Malaysia

As a result of the rapid economic growth in the past, the usage of residential electrical appliances for the last two decades has increased rapidly in Malaysia. Like other developing countries with hot and humid climates, Malaysia has been experiencing a dramatic increase in the number of air conditioners used, which will be higher in the future. In order to reduce energy consumption in the residential sector, the Malaysia Energy Center considered implementing minimum energy efficiency standards for room air conditioners sometime in the coming year. This paper attempts to predict the amount of energy saved in the residential sector by implementing minimum energy efficiency standards for room air conditioners. The calculations were made based on the growth of ownership data of air conditioners. The number of room air conditioners has increased from 13 251 units in 1970 to 253 399 in 1991, and will be about 1 511 276 in the year 2020. As such, efficiency improvement on this particular appliance will have a significant impact on the future electricity consumption in this country. Moreover, it has been found that the energy efficiency standards for room air conditioners are very favorable.

Dynamic modeling and simulation of a palm wastes boiler

A state-space dynamic model for a palm wastes boiler is being developed and simulated. The unique feature of this boiler is that it uses wastes in the form of fiber and shell from the palm oil processing as its fuels. Specific characteristics of oil palm waste boilers are non-uniform fuel feed, compositions, sizes and moisture content of the fuel. These features introduce additional dimensions to the difficulty of boiler control. The superheated steam produced is used to generate electricity, which drives numerous motors and other equipment for palm fruit processing thus causing severe interactions between the power plant and other parts of the mill. The main work of this paper is the development of a dynamic model and simulation of the boiler. The boiler unit can be divided into several sections for analysis viz., the furnace, superheater, drum, risers, and downcomer. A tenth-order, physical, linearized process model was developed. The linearized model consists of ten first-order simultaneous equations and is represented by a (10 x 10) state matrix and (4 x 10) input matrix in the state space form.

Projected electricity savings from implementing minimum energy efficiency standard for household refrigerators in Malaysia

The Malaysian economy has grown rapidly in the last two decades. This growth has increased the ownership of household electrical appliances, especially refrigerator-freezers. Almost every house in Malaysia owns a refrigerator-freezer. The Malaysia Energy Center considered implementing a minimum energy efficiency standard for household refrigerator-freezers sometime in the coming year. This paper attempts to predict the amount of energy savings in the residential sector by implementing a minimum energy efficiency standard for household refrigerator-freezers. The calculations are based on the growth of refrigerator-freezer ownership data in Malaysian households. By implementing the programs in 2004, about 8722 GWh will be saved in the year 2013. Therefore, efficiency improvement of this appliance will provide a significant impact in future electricity consumption in Malaysia.