T.M.M. Verhallen

Response styles in rating scales: Evidence of method bias in data from 6 EU countries

In cross-cultural studies with social variables such as values or attitudes, it is often assumed that differences in scores can be compared at face value. However, response styles like acquiescence and extreme response style may affect answers, particularly on rating scales. In three sets of data from marketing studies, each with representative samples fromat least threeoutofsix countries(Greece,Italy, Spain,France,Germany, andthe United Kingdom), these two response styles were found to be more present in the Mediterranean than in Northwestern Europe. Evidence for response style effects was not only found in response distributions on rating scales, but also in discrepancies of these distributions with national consumer statistics and self-reported actual behavior.

A behavioral model of residential energy use

Abstract The energy use in the residential sector is an important area for compaigns to conserve energy. In the first section of this article, a model is proposed that relates personal, environmental (e.g. home) and behavioral factors to energy use. This model is instrumental in relating variables that determine energy use in the home. In the following these determinants of household energy use: socio-demographic factors, family life-style, energy prices, energy-related behavior, cost-benefit trade offs, effectiveness and responsibility, feedback, information, home characteristics are discussed. In the third section several options for energy-saving campaigns and related research are discussed.

Domain-specific market segmentation

Proposes domain‐specific market segmentation as a promising approach as compared with segmentation based on general or on brand‐specific variables. Treats product differentiation and positioning as the counterpart of market segmentation. The link between market segmentation, on the one hand, and product differentiation, on the other hand, is the product benefit. The product benefit is the interaction of the product and the consumer.

Household behavior and the use of natural gas for home heating

The factors that determine energy use for home heating are investigated in this study. Household behavior and home characteristics prove to be the major determinants, whereas attitudes are of minor importance. Home insulation has two opposing effects on energy use: lower thermostat settings, but more airing out of rooms.

Scarcity and consumer choice behavior

Abstract Two experiments are performed to test hypotheses derived from commodity theory. Commodity theory promotes a psychological conceptualization of traditionally economic variables such as supply, demand and utility. The theory concerns itself mainly with the effect of restricted availability upon the valuation of communications, but in the present paper the effect of restricted availability and attainability on the preference for material goods (recipe books) is investigated. The first experiment was designed to test the effect of degree of availability (low, middle or high) and cause of unavailability (accidental unavailability, unavailability due to popularity, unavailability due to limited supply and unavailability due to both limited supply and popularity) on the choice between three recipe books in a simulated product test. The results suggest that the theory is valid only for attractive products. For subjects who were not attracted to the product this relationship was reversed (they avoided choosing the scarce product), indicating the arousal of an ‘altruism’ motive in the experimental setting. The second experiment was designed to test the effect of attainability (attainable, unattainable changed to attainable and unattainable) and cause of unattainability (accidental, popularity, limited supply and both limited supply and popularity) on the same kind of choice. The results again suggest that commodity theory is valid only for subjects attracted to the good, and only for the restricted attainability situation. For subjects not attracted to the product field no treatment effects were found. Commodity theory makes no clear prediction of the effects of unattainability, so reactance theory was used to predict the effects of this variable. The hypothesis that an unattainable good is valued more than an attainable good had to be rejected. A possible explanation based on the occurrence of frustration in this condition is discussed.

PATTERNS OF RESIDENTIAL ENERGY BEHAVIOR

Behavior of the household members and home characteristics are the major determinants of residential energy use. This study is focussed on energy-related behavioral patterns. It is based on self-reported behaviors of 145 households in Vlaardingen, The Netherlands. Energy-related behavior may not be a separate type of behavior but a contingency for other types of household behaviors, such as recreation, child care, and household chores. Two important aspects of energy contingency are home temperature and ventilation. Based on these two components, we distinguish five clusters of behavior or behavioral patterns:conservers, spenders, cool, warm, and average. The energy use of these clusters differs considerably. Consercers use less energy, while spenders use more energy than theaverage group. The coot and the warm cluster use less energy than the average group. For energy policy, the differences between these behavioral patterns (clusters) are relevant, whereas each cluster is different on sociodemographic and attitudinal variables. This requires different strategies for changing and maintaining energy-related behaviors.

ATTITUDE THEORY AND BEHAVIORAL COSTS

Abstract The Fishbein and Ajzen reasoned action model is briefly introduced and some theoretical aspects of the model arc discussed. Based on a critical analysis of the act and behavioral category concepts in their model an alternative concept, ‘behavioral field’, is introduced. A behavioral field is defined as: ‘the total of acts that are perceived by the acting individual as leading to a common goal or valued state’. Then a distinction is made between goal acts and instrumental acts, Goal acts lead to goal attainment. Instrumental acts will bring the individual into the direction of his goal. It is argued that for acts that are predominantly instrumental other substitutable acts are available. The choice between suhstitutable instrumental acts is governed by both expected outcomes and the behavioral costs attached to the acts. Behavioral costs are defined as the behavioral price relative to the behavioral budget. The behavioral price is determined by tile time, psychic and physical task demand. The behavioral budget is a function of the goal importance of the behavioral field. Some further aspects of behavioral costs are then discussed. Several arguments to treat costs and outcomes separately in the explanation of behavior, are elaborated. Then some implications from the behavioral cost concept are drawn for attitude theory. Finally the entangling of costs and value is briefly discussed.

Equivalence of survey data : Relevance for international marketing

Purpose – The paper presents a framework for establishing equivalence of international marketing data. The framework is meant to reduce confusion about equivalence issues, and guide the design of international studies and data analysis.Design/methodology/approach – A short overview is given of the two main approaches to equivalence in the literature. These are integrated and used to distinguish sources of cultural bias in the various stages of the research process.Findings – The highest levels of equivalence most often established are construct equivalence and partial measurement equivalence, implying that distributions of scores obtained in various countries cannot be interpreted at face value. To understand cross‐cultural differences better, researchers should investigate why higher levels of equivalence could not be established; this can be done best by including elements from both the conceptual and the measurement approach to equivalence.Practical implications – This study can help marketing managers...

Brand Confusion in Advertising

The question of advertising effectiveness (i.e., to what extent is advertising effective or ineffective?) is possibly the most important question asked of or by advertisers. In this article, the authors provide evidence that advertising may also be counter-effective, that is, produce results that an advertiser specifically wants to avoid. Brand confusion is one such undesired result: the advertisement for brand A is taken by consumers as promoting brand B. In other words, the advertiser finances an advertisement for his competitor. In the second part of the article, several possible causes of brand confusion are presented, and practical advertising implications are discussed.

Strategy based segmentation of industrial markets

Abstract Segmentation of industrial markets is typically based on observable characteristics of firms such as their location and size. However, such variables have been found to be poor predictors of industrial buying behavior. To improve the effectiveness and power of existing approaches to industrial market segmentation, we propose using unobservable characteristics such as organizational strategy in addition to the observable characteristics currently used. An important justification for our approach is that a firm’s strategy influences its behavior, especially its buying behavior; as a result, adding the strategic type and orientation of firms to a segmentation scheme is bound to improve the effectiveness of the scheme. To test the effectiveness of our approach, we conducted an empirical study of the purchase of car phones by 200 Dutch firms. The results support our predictions. In fact, they indicate that a firm’s strategy is an even more important determinant of industrial buying behavior than the variables currently used. Thus, strategy-based segmentation may be a more powerful and effective approach to industrial segmentation than current approaches.