T. Nabben

Cocaine and Crack in Amsterdam: Diverging Subcultures

Recreational cocaine use spread rapidly in Amsterdam at the end of the 1970s, particularly as a “party drug” in clubs and discotheques. At the end of the 1980s, the role of cocaine as party drug was largely taken over by ecstasy. In contrast, first cocaine and then crack cocaine increased in popularity among heroin addicts and marginalized street youth, including homeless youth and young prostitutes. Today, experimental use of crack is also observed among young people from socially deprived neighborhoods, especially among ethnic minorities. This article describes, mainly on the basis of ethnographic studies among these groups, the evolving and diverging patterns of use among trendsetting party youth and their marginalized counterparts. Important differences may be observed between groups related to socio-economic background, the role cocaine plays in their lives, transmission routes, and different operating market mechanisms influenced by drug policy. For party youth, cocaine use mainly serves recreational purposes. In contrast, for problem youth, cocaine, and now especially crack, contribute to multi-problem behavior within the context of their marginalized lifestyles.

Recreational nitrous oxide use: prevalence and risks

Nitrous oxide (N2O; laughing gas) is clinically used as a safe anesthetic (dentistry, ambulance, childbirth) and appreciated for its anti-anxiety effect. Since five years, recreational use of N2O is rapidly increasing especially in the dance and festival scene. In the UK, N2O is the second most popular recreational drug after cannabis. In most countries, nitrous oxide is a legal drug that is widely available and cheap. Last month prevalence of use among clubbers and ravers ranges between 40 and almost 80 percent. Following one inhalation, mostly from a balloon, a euphoric, pleasant, joyful, empathogenic and sometimes hallucinogenic effect is rapidly induced (within 10 s) and disappears within some minutes. Recreational N2O use is generally moderate with most users taking less than 10 balloons of N2O per episode and about 80% of the users having less than 10 episodes per year. Side effects of N2O include transient dizziness, dissociation, disorientation, loss of balance, impaired memory and cognition, and weakness in the legs. When intoxicated accidents like tripping and falling may occur. Some fatal accidents have been reported due to due to asphyxia (hypoxia). Heavy or sustained use of N2O inactivates vitamin B12, resulting in a functional vitamin B12 deficiency and initially causing numbness in fingers, which may further progress to peripheral neuropathy and megaloblastic anemia. N2O use does not seem to result in dependence. Considering the generally modest use of N2O and its relative safety, it is not necessary to take legal measures. However, (potential) users should be informed about the risk of vitamin B12-deficiency related neurological and hematological effects associated with heavy use.

Exploring the Attractiveness of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) among Experienced Drug Users

Abstract A growing number of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) appear yearly on the European market (81 for the first time in 2013, adding to a total of over 350 NPS). Using semi-structured interviews with 25 Dutch experienced recreational drug users, the role of the Internet and friends in gathering and exchanging information about NPS was elaborated. Furthermore, we investigated how NPS were acquired and which aspects make NPS more or less attractive, including their legal status. It appeared that the Internet was an important source of information about NPS in general. Personal experiences with NPS were preferably shared face-to-face with friends, as for privacy reasons users were cautious to post their experiences on web sites and forums. NPS were usually obtained or bought from friends or—to a lesser extent—purchased via the Internet. The preference for a specific NPS depended on the desired effects (mostly stimulant or psychedelic), price (similar to MDMA or amphetamine), duration of effect (preferably around four hours), and setting (at home, at festivals, or in nightlife). Legal status was not relevant for the decision to use NPS. Most NPS are not superior to the already marketed drugs, and do not displace conventional illicit drugs.

Risk Factors of γ-Hydroxybutyrate Overdosing

The aim of this study was to identify in recreational drug users the factors which increase the risk of overdosing (OD) with γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB). A purposive sample of 45 experienced GHB users was interviewed, equally divided into three groups (never OD, occasional OD, and repeat OD). The repeat OD group scored highest on many risk factors regarding GHB use, the occasional OD group scored intermediate, and the never OD group scored lowest. Participants, whether or not they had overdosed on GHB, most often perceived GHB use (e.g. using more GHB than usual, using GHB doses too closely together) as the main reason for GHB OD, and many participants who had overdosed on GHB reported that they had taken more GHB than usual at their most recent occasion of GHB OD. No significant differences in co-use of GHB with other substances were found between the three groups. Our findings indicate that using GHB in the company of groups of friends probably reduces, but does not eliminate, the risk of OD.

Consequences of criminalisation: the Dutch khat market before and after the ban

Abstract Aims: To evaluate the consequences of criminalising khat, with a focus on the changes in law enforcement and the use, availability, price and quality of khat in the Netherlands. Methods: Mixed methods, including law enforcement data, expert interviews, focus group interviews with members of the Somali community, and a survey among 168 current (last month) khat users. Findings: Soon after the law changed (early in 2013), and khat had become an illicit drug, much of the khat imported from Africa was confiscated at Schiphol International Airport and users found it more difficult to obtain fresh khat leaves. About two years after the ban had been implemented, the price of fresh khat at user level had increased tenfold on average, and much of it was of poorer quality (e.g. sold in dried or powdered form). Conclusion: Criminalisation of khat in the Netherlands had substantial consequences for the khat market, predominantly because the ban was actively enforced at a crucial stage in the distribution chain (transcontinental import by air) and there was a lack of alternative transportation routes that could supply users with fresh khat. It is highly likely that the total number of Somali khat users in the Netherlands dropped, but that the proportion of dependent and poor, “problem users” increased.

Drugs in rurale gebieden : GHB-gebruik en -handel op het Nederlandse platteland

GHB is an anaesthetic that in Netherlands since the 1990s is used as a drug by various groups. Although GHB is often defined as a ‘party drug’, particularly in rural areas it is also used in street cultures. GHB is mainly used recreationally, but a minority uses the drug frequently and/or becomes addicted. GHB use and associated problems are disproportionately spread across the Netherlands and are concentrated in certain rural areas (‘trouble spots’), especially in low SES villages or neighbourhoods. Predominantly based on qualitative research, this article describes supply and use of GHB in rural ‘trouble spots’. The profile of experienced current GHB users in rural areas is characterized by a wide age range, a low level of education, often multiple psychosocial problems and poly drug use. They are almost exclusively ‘white’, in majority male users, of whom a large part has been arrested on several occasions. From a supply perspective, GHB could spread quickly because of the short distribution chain, the limited social distance between dealers and users, as well as the closeness an reticence of user groups. Even though as a drug GHB is very different from methamphetamine, there are striking similarities in set and setting characteristics between rural GHB use in the Netherlands and rural methamphetamine use in the US.