T. Randall Curlee

Automobile recycling in the United States : energy impacts and waste generation

Abstract Changes in the trends in the material composition of domestic and imported automobiles and the increasing cost of landfilling the non-recyclable portion of automobiles (automobile shredder residue or ASR) pose questions about the future of automobile recycling in the United States. In response to these challenges, new and innovative approaches to automobile recycling are being developed. This paper presents the findings of a recent study to examine the impacts of these changes on the life cycle energy consumption of automobiles and on the quantity of waste that must be disposed of. Given the recycle status quo, trends in material composition and the viability of recycling the non-metallic components of the typical automobile are of secondary importance when compared to the energy consumed during the life of the automobile. The energy savings resulting from small changes in the fuel efficiency of a vehicle overshadow potential energy losses associated with the adoption of new and possibly non-recyclable materials. Under status quo conditions, the life cycle energy consumed by the typical automobile is projected to decrease from 599 million Btus in 1992 to 565 million Btus in 2000. Energy consumed during the manufacture of the typical car will increase from about 120 to 140 million Btus between 1992 and 2000, while energy used during vehicle operation will decrease from 520 to 480 million Btus. This study projects that energy saved at the recycle step will increase from 41 million Btus in 1992 to 55 million Btus in 2000. This study also investigated the energy impacts of several potential changes to the recycle status quo, including the adoption of technologies to retrieve the heat value of ASR by incineration and the recycle of some or all thermoplastics in the typical automobile. The study estimates that under optimistic conditions —i.e., the recycling of all thermoplastics and the incineration with heat recovery of all remaining ASR —about 8 million Btus could be saved per automobile —i.e., an increase from about 55 to 63 million Btus. In the more realistic scenario —i.e., the recycling of easy-to-remove thermoplastic components (bumper covers and dash-boards) —the potential energy savings are about 1 million Btus per vehicle. It is estimated that the annual quantity of ASR in the United States could be reduced from about 5 billion pounds to as little as 1 billion pounds of ash if all ASR is incinerated. Alternatively, ASR quantity could be reduced to about 4 billion pounds if all thermoplastics in automobiles are recycled. However, in the case of recycling only thermoplastic bumper covers and dashboards, the quantity of ASR would be reduced by only 0.2 billion pounds. A significant reduction or increase in the size of the ASR waste stream will not in itself have a large impact on the solid waste stream in the United States.

Evaluating technology innovation programs: the use of comparison groups to identify impacts

Abstract This paper discusses the pros and cons of alternative comparison groups for evaluating technology innovation programs, and focuses specifically on the selection of a comparison group for the evaluation of the U.S. Department of Energys (DOE) Energy-Related Inventions Program (ERIP). The pros and cons of five alternative comparison group options are discussed, including: inventor societies, innovation and incubator centers, patent holders, near-participants, and program referrals. Program referrals are selected as a suitable comparison group for evaluating the Energy-Related Inventions Program. Data collected on ERIP participants and referrals provide strong evidence that ERIP-supported technologies achieved their considerable commercial success, at least in part because of the support provided by the DOE. There are large differences between the program referrals and the ERIP participants in terms of several indicators of commercial success. For example, average dollar sales by ERIP participants are an order of magnitude greater than the program referral group. This paper illustrates that the simultaneous tracking of program participants and a matched comparison group can enhance the evaluation of technology innovation programs by helping to isolate the effects of the government program from the host of other factors that influence the commercialization of inventions.

Identifying and assessing targets of opportunity for plastics recycling

Abstract This paper identifies and assesses “targets of opportunity” for additional recycling of plastic wastes. Targets are discussed in terms of the quantities of plastics wastes that might be affected, the relevant supply-side and demand-side constraints that must be overcome before these targets can be met, and the degree to which meeting these targets might be facilitated by government sponsored incentive programs or other regulatory measures. Five hypothetical scenarios are developed that depict various supply-side and demand-side conditions. In some cases, the supply-side and demand-side assumptions are consistent with current technical, economic, institutional, and regulatory conditions. In other cases, particularly with respect to supply-side constraints, the assumptions represent significant shifts in the ways plastics are collected and processed in the United States. The quantities and types of plastics that could be recycled, given the hypothetical conditions, are estimated. The viability of the assumptions in the various scenarios is also assessed. Given current conditions and expected future trends, three broad options exist to increase the percentage of plastics recycled. First, actions can be taken to promote the collection and recycling of relatively clean plastic waste. Technical constraints and the relative sizes of markets for different resins suggest that a focus on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) packaging is most appropriate. Second, actions can be taken to promote the collection and recycling of commingled plastics. Third, plastics can be collected with other combustible wastes and incinerated to recover heat value. The recycling of PET and HDPE faces fewer technical, economic, and institutional constraints than does the recycling of commingled plastics. Although more risky, recycling of commingled plastics offers the opportunity to recycle a much larger percentage of the total plastics waste stream. Incineration with heat recovery could utilize all plastic wastes. The potential for incineration may, however, be limited by environmental concerns. Given the uncertainties that currently exist about these recycling approaches, a flexible public policy with respect to plastics recycling is suggested at this time.

Plastics recycling: Economic and institutional issues☆

Abstract There are two major objectives of this paper. The first is to discuss the quantities of plastic wastes that are candidates for different types of recycling process in the coming decade. The second objective is to discuss the major economic and institutional incentives and barriers faced by different private- and public-sector decision-makers when considering plastics recycling. Projections made by the author indicate that the total quantity of plastic wastes entering a recycling or waste-disposal stream will continue to rise during the coming decade — increasing from an estimated 33 billion pounds in 1984 to about 47 billion pounds in 1995. Postconsumer wastes will grow more rapidly than manufacturing waste and by 1995 should comprise about 92% of the total. While packaging will remain by far the largest single source of plastic wastes, plastics from the construction sector will grow most rapidly in percentage terms. It is argued that technical and economic problems associated with the separation of plastics from other materials and the separation of individual plastic types will limit plastics recycling outside of the municipal waste stream to between 22 and 26% of the total quantity produced. It is further argued that the degree to which the private sector adopts new technologies to recycle this 22–26% will be determined in large part by the economic and institutional incentives and barriers faced by the different groups that must individually or collectively participate in a recycling operation. In most cases, successful operations have been functions of institutional conditions rather than technological fixes. Finally, it is suggested that the public sectors involvement in, and support for, plastics recycling will be a function of the continuing debate about the environmental consequences of plastics disposal versus recycling. While government intervention can be argued for on other grounds — in particular the subsidization of waste disposal — the uncertainty about the environmental implications of plastics disposal, as well as some forms of recycling, will be important in formulating a public response to the issue.

Fernald's dilemma: Recycle the radioactively contaminated scrap metal, or bury it?

Abstract During the past 5 years, a number of US Department of Energy (DOE) funded efforts have demonstrated the technical efficacy of converting various forms of radioactive scrap metal (RSM) into useable products. From the development of accelerator shielding blocks, to the construction of low level waste containers, technology has been applied to this fabrication process in a safe and stakeholder supported manner. The potential health and safety risks to both workers and the public have been addressed. The question remains: do the benefits of fabricating products from RSM outweigh the costs? This paper presents a decision methodology for use within DOE to evaluate the costs and benefits of recycling and reusing some RSM, rather than disposing of this RSM in an approved burial site. The methodology is being applied to a decision on whether the DOE Fernald site should recycle its radioactively contaminated metals.

A life cycle decision methodology for recycle of radioactive scrap metal

During the past five years, a number of U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) funded efforts have demonstrated the technical efficacy of converting various forms of radioactive scrap metal (RSM) into useable products. While health and safety and other technical issues have been addressed, the question remains: do the benefits of fabricating products from RSM outweigh the costs? This paper presents a decision methodology for use within DOE to evaluate the costs and benefits of recycling and reusing some RSM, rather than disposing of this RSM in an approved burial site. The methodology consists of two distinct phases: the Life Cycle Assessment phase and the decision phase. The Life Cycle Assessment approach proposed here differs from traditional life cycle assessments because it considers economic and other impacts of concern to stakeholders, and includes secondary and indirect impacts that may occur upstream or downstream of the decision.

Rural transit systems benefits in Tennessee: methodology and an empirical study

This paper describes the application of a detailed benefits assessment framework and sensitivity analysis of the operation of rural public transit services in the state of Tennessee. The paper describes the major components of this benefits framework and its application to the demand-responsive services operated within the state during the 1998/99 fiscal year. An empirical analysis yields a benefit/cost ratio greater than 1.0, with benefits dominated by accessibility gains to current transit patrons through the provision of mobility-enhancing vanpool services. Without these services, the costs of providing an equivalent level of access to health care, job training, and other important household activities would be much higher. Improved and expanded transit rider-based data collection efforts are recommended.

Historical responses to environmental externalities in electric power

Abstract This paper argues that policies in the USA to internalize environmental externalities from coal fired power plants have been linked to the evolution of our conceptual understanding of externalities and how externalities can be internalized. Government policies are divided into three periods: before the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969; between the passage of NEPA and actions in 1989 by the State of New Yorks Public Service Commission to include environmental externalities in integrated planning; and from 1989 to the present, which includes various state actions to explicitly include environmental costs in decision making, and the marketable emission allowances included in the 1990 Clean Air Act. The positions of economists, policy makers, and the general public have tended to converge over time to reach the current acceptance of, if not preference for, economic incentives as alternatives to command and control regulations. In recent years economists have moved from their strict emphasis on economic efficiency to questions of equity and implementation. At the same time policy makers, disciplines other than economics and the general public have come to appreciate the cost saving aspects of economic incentives. Future responses to environmental externalities in electric power will depend on the abilities of economists to accurately evaluate and communicate the pros and cons associated with economic incentives and on the willingness of policy makers and the general public to appreciate the benefits, as well as tolerate the compromises, that a move to a market based system will entail.

ESTIMATION OF STATEWIDE URBAN PUBLIC TRANSIT BENEFITS IN TENNESSEE

A comprehensive transit benefits assessment procedure is described as applied to each of the 12 urban public transit operating districts in the state of Tennessee. A multiple-branch benefits assessment tree is developed around transit use benefits and transit supply benefits, the former emphasizing the costs of lost mobility in the absence of current transit services and the latter reflecting the economic benefits resulting from federal and state support for public transit in each district. Empirical results are presented at the statewide level and in dollar terms. With a generally conservative approach to benefits estimation, it is found that urban transit benefits—mainly from fixed-route bus service—exceed costs by 2 to 2.5 times, with higher ratios possible in the larger metropolitan areas. Sensitivity to forgone travel benefits, however, suggests the need for further data refinements. On the basis of past literature, the study develops a comprehensive set of wide-ranging benefits computations that have been applied consistently across each of the states 12 urban transit districts and uses data sources that can be cost-effectively updated by transit planners.

Oil supply disruptions and modelling methodologies: The role of LP models

Abstract This paper has three main objectives. First, an argument is made that oil vulnerability is not a problem of the past, but remains a significant concern for all oil-consuming countries, especially beyond 1990. Second, it is suggested that the severity of past disruptions can be attributed, in part, to physical and institutional constraints that prevented the oil market from reacting quickly to what were relatively minor supply disruptions. The currently changing structure of the world oil market, in particular the evolving sales agreements under which an increasing percentage of world oil is traded and the vertical integration of major OPEC members into areas such as refining, could decrease the ability of the market to adjust to future disruptions. Third, it is suggested that linear programming (LP) models offer unique capabilities in assessing the degree to which the world and domestic oil markets could adjust to short-term supply disruptions, given constraints on transport, trade, and refining possibilities imposed by the physical structures of those market sectors or by control of those sectors by increasingly powerful producing countries. The assessment of this flexibility will help pinpoint areas needing attention and also contribute indirectly to the evaluation of short-run demand elasticities for world oil. The US Department of Energys Petroleum Allocation (PAL) Model is used as an example of one LP model that can address such issues.