Tadashi Takeshima

Toward a global view of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine use: findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys

Background Alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drug use cause considerable morbidity and mortality, but good cross-national epidemiological data are limited. This paper describes such data from the first 17 countries participating in the World Health Organizations (WHOs) World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative. Methods and Findings Household surveys with a combined sample size of 85,052 were carried out in the Americas (Colombia, Mexico, United States), Europe (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Ukraine), Middle East and Africa (Israel, Lebanon, Nigeria, South Africa), Asia (Japan, Peoples Republic of China), and Oceania (New Zealand). The WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) was used to assess the prevalence and correlates of a wide variety of mental and substance disorders. This paper focuses on lifetime use and age of initiation of tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine. Alcohol had been used by most in the Americas, Europe, Japan, and New Zealand, with smaller proportions in the Middle East, Africa, and China. Cannabis use in the US and New Zealand (both 42%) was far higher than in any other country. The US was also an outlier in cocaine use (16%). Males were more likely than females to have used drugs; and a sex–cohort interaction was observed, whereby not only were younger cohorts more likely to use all drugs, but the male–female gap was closing in more recent cohorts. The period of risk for drug initiation also appears to be lengthening longer into adulthood among more recent cohorts. Associations with sociodemographic variables were consistent across countries, as were the curves of incidence of lifetime use. Conclusions Globally, drug use is not distributed evenly and is not simply related to drug policy, since countries with stringent user-level illegal drug policies did not have lower levels of use than countries with liberal ones. Sex differences were consistently documented, but are decreasing in more recent cohorts, who also have higher levels of illegal drug use and extensions in the period of risk for initiation.

The performance of the Japanese version of the K6 and K10 in the World Mental Health Survey Japan

Two new screening scales for psychological distress, the K6 and K10, have been developed using the item response theory and shown to outperform existing screeners in English. We developed their Japanese versions using the standard backtranslaton method and included them in the World Mental Health Survey Japan (WMH‐J), which is a psychiatric epidemiologic study conducted in seven communities across Japan with 2436 participants. The WMH‐J used the WMH Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) to assess the 30‐day Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition (DSM‐IV). Performance of the two screening scales in detecting DSM‐IV mood and anxiety disorders, as assessed by the areas under receiver operating characteristic curves (AUCs), was excellent, with values as high as 0.94 (95% confidence interval = 0.88 to 0.99) for K6 and 0.94 (0.88 to 0.995) for K10. Stratum‐specific likelihood ratios (SSLRs), which express screening test characteristics and can be used to produce individual‐level predicted probabilities of being a case from screening scale scores and pretest probabilities in other samples, were strikingly similar between the Japanese and the original versions. The Japanese versions of the K6 and K10 thus demonstrated screening performances essentially equivalent to those of the original English versions. Copyright

Twelve-month prevalence, severity, and treatment of common mental disorders in communities in Japan: preliminary finding from the World Mental Health Japan Survey 2002-2003.

Abstract  To estimate the prevalence, severity, and treatment of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn; DSM‐IV) mental disorders in community populations in Japan, face‐to‐face household surveys were conducted in four community populations in Japan. A total of 1663 community adults responded (overall response rate, 56%). The DSM‐IV disorders, severity, and treatment were assessed with the World Mental Health version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WMH‐CIDI), a fully structured lay‐administered psychiatric diagnostic interview. The prevalence of any WMH‐CIDI/DSM‐IV disorder in the prior year was 8.8%, of which 17% of cases were severe and 47% were moderate. Among specific disorders, major depression (2.9%), specific phobia (2.7%), and alcohol abuse/dependence (2.0%) were the most prevalent. Although disorder severity was correlated with probability of treatment, only 19% of the serious or moderate cases received medical treatment in the 12 months before the interview. Older and not currently married individuals had a greater risk of having more severe DSM‐IV disorders if they had experienced any within the previous 12 months. Those who had completed high school or some college were more likely to seek medical treatment than those who had completed college. The study confirmed that the prevalence of DSM‐IV mental disorders was equal to that observed in Asian countries but lower than that in Western countries. The percentage of those receiving medical treatment was low even for those who suffered severe or moderate disorders. Possible strategies are discussed.

Barriers to mental health treatment: Results from the WHO World Mental Health surveys

BACKGROUND To examine barriers to initiation and continuation of mental health treatment among individuals with common mental disorders. METHOD Data were from the World Health Organization (WHO) World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Representative household samples were interviewed face to face in 24 countries. Reasons to initiate and continue treatment were examined in a subsample (n = 63,678) and analyzed at different levels of clinical severity. RESULTS Among those with a DSM-IV disorder in the past 12 months, low perceived need was the most common reason for not initiating treatment and more common among moderate and mild than severe cases. Women and younger people with disorders were more likely to recognize a need for treatment. A desire to handle the problem on ones own was the most common barrier among respondents with a disorder who perceived a need for treatment (63.8%). Attitudinal barriers were much more important than structural barriers to both initiating and continuing treatment. However, attitudinal barriers dominated for mild-moderate cases and structural barriers for severe cases. Perceived ineffectiveness of treatment was the most commonly reported reason for treatment drop-out (39.3%), followed by negative experiences with treatment providers (26.9% of respondents with severe disorders). CONCLUSIONS Low perceived need and attitudinal barriers are the major barriers to seeking and staying in treatment among individuals with common mental disorders worldwide. Apart from targeting structural barriers, mainly in countries with poor resources, increasing population mental health literacy is an important endeavor worldwide.

Gender and the relationship between marital status and first onset of mood, anxiety and substance use disorders

BACKGROUND Prior research on whether marriage is equally beneficial to the mental health of men and women is inconsistent due to methodological variation. This study addresses some prior methodological limitations and investigates gender differences in the association of first marriage and being previously married, with subsequent first onset of a range of mental disorders. METHOD Cross-sectional household surveys in 15 countries from the WHO World Mental Health survey initiative (n=34493), with structured diagnostic assessment of mental disorders using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview 3.0. Discrete-time survival analyses assessed the interaction of gender and marital status in the association with first onset of mood, anxiety and substance use disorders. RESULTS Marriage (versus never married) was associated with reduced risk of first onset of most mental disorders in both genders; but for substance use disorders this reduced risk was stronger among women, and for depression and panic disorder it was confined to men. Being previously married (versus stably married) was associated with increased risk of all disorders in both genders; but for substance use disorders, this increased risk was stronger among women and for depression it was stronger among men. CONCLUSIONS Marriage was associated with reduced risk of the first onset of most mental disorders in both men and women but there were gender differences in the associations between marital status and onset of depressive and substance use disorders. These differences may be related to gender differences in the experience of multiple role demands within marriage, especially those concerning parenting.

The Role of Criterion A2 in the DSM-IV Diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

BACKGROUND Controversy exists about the utility of DSM-IV posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) criterion A2 (A2): that exposure to a potentially traumatic experience (PTE; PTSD criterion A1) is accompanied by intense fear, helplessness, or horror. METHODS Lifetime DSM-IV PTSD was assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview in community surveys of 52,826 respondents across 21 countries in the World Mental Health Surveys. RESULTS Of 28,490 representative PTEs reported by respondents, 37.6% met criterion A2, a proportion higher than the proportions meeting other criteria (B-F; 5.4%-9.6%). Conditional prevalence of meeting all other criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD given a PTE was significantly higher in the presence (9.7%) than absence (.1%) of A2. However, as only 1.4% of respondents who met all other criteria failed A2, the estimated prevalence of PTSD increased only slightly (from 3.64% to 3.69%) when A2 was not required for diagnosis. Posttraumatic stress disorder with or without criterion A2 did not differ in persistence or predicted consequences (subsequent suicidal ideation or secondary disorders) depending on presence-absence of A2. Furthermore, as A2 was by far the most commonly reported symptom of PTSD, initial assessment of A2 would be much less efficient than screening other criteria in quickly ruling out a large proportion of noncases. CONCLUSIONS Removal of A2 from the DSM-IV criterion set would reduce the complexity of diagnosing PTSD, while not substantially increasing the number of people who qualify for diagnosis. Criterion A2 should consequently be reconceptualized as a risk factor for PTSD rather than as a diagnostic requirement.

Subthreshold posttraumatic stress disorder in the world health organization world mental health surveys

BACKGROUND Although only a few people exposed to a traumatic event (TE) develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), symptoms that do not meet full PTSD criteria are common and often clinically significant. Individuals with these symptoms sometimes have been characterized as having subthreshold PTSD, but no consensus exists on the optimal definition of this term. Data from a large cross-national epidemiologic survey are used in this study to provide a principled basis for such a definition. METHODS The World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys administered fully structured psychiatric diagnostic interviews to community samples in 13 countries containing assessments of PTSD associated with randomly selected TEs. Focusing on the 23,936 respondents reporting lifetime TE exposure, associations of approximated DSM-5 PTSD symptom profiles with six outcomes (distress-impairment, suicidality, comorbid fear-distress disorders, PTSD symptom duration) were examined to investigate implications of different subthreshold definitions. RESULTS Although consistently highest outcomes for distress-impairment, suicidality, comorbidity, and PTSD symptom duration were observed among the 3.0% of respondents with DSM-5 PTSD rather than other symptom profiles, the additional 3.6% of respondents meeting two or three of DSM-5 criteria B-E also had significantly elevated scores for most outcomes. The proportion of cases with threshold versus subthreshold PTSD varied depending on TE type, with threshold PTSD more common following interpersonal violence and subthreshold PTSD more common following events happening to loved ones. CONCLUSIONS Subthreshold DSM-5 PTSD is most usefully defined as meeting two or three of DSM-5 criteria B-E. Use of a consistent definition is critical to advance understanding of the prevalence, predictors, and clinical significance of subthreshold PTSD.

Mental disorders and suicide in Japan: a nation-wide psychological autopsy case-control study.

BACKGROUND The purpose of the present nationwide psychological autopsy case-control study is to identify the association between mental disorders and suicide in Japan, adjusting for physical conditions. METHODS A semi-structured interview was conducted of the closest family members of 49 suicide completers and 145 gender-, age-, and municipality-matched living controls. The interview included sections of socio-demographic characteristics, physical conditions, and a psychiatric interview producing DSM-IV diagnoses of mental disorders prior to suicide (or at survey). We compared prevalences of mental disorders between the two groups, using conditional logistic regression. RESULTS A significantly higher proportion with any mental disorder was found in the suicide group (65.3%) compared to the control group (4.8%) (p=0.003, odds ratio [OR]=7.5). The population attributable risk proportion associated with mental disorder was 0.24. Mood disorder, particularly major depressive disorder, was the most strongly associated with suicide (p<0.001). Anxiety disorder, alcohol-related disorder, and brief psychotic disorder were also significantly associated with suicide (p<0.05). These patterns were unchanged after adjusting for serious chronic physical conditions. LIMITATIONS The present study had some limitations, such as small sample size, sampling bias and information bias. CONCLUSIONS Most mental disorders, particularly mood disorder, were significantly associated with a greater risk of suicide in Japan, independent of physical conditions. Mental disorders are a major target of suicide prevention programs in Japan.

Social Class Inequalities in Self-rated Health and Their Gender and Age Group Differences in Japan

BACKGROUND Few studies have examined social inequalities in self-rated health in Japan, and the issue of gender differences related to social inequalities in self-rated health remains inconclusive. METHODS The data derived from interviews with 2987 randomly selected Japanese adults in four prefectures in Japan who completed the cross-national World Mental Health survey from 2002 through 2005. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) of having poor self-rated physical and mental health by two social class indicators independently with multivariate logistic regression models, adjusted for age, gender, marital status, and area. Stratified analyses by gender and age group were also conducted. RESULTS The adjusted ORs of the lowest educational attainment category having poor self-rated physical and mental health were 1.42 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.15-1.76) and 1.37 (95% CI: 1.10-1.70), respectively. Among females, educational attainment had significant linear associations with self-rated physical and mental health. Adjusted household income was also significantly associated with self-rated physical health among female respondents. No associations were found among males. While educational attainment was associated with self-rated health among the young age group, adjusted household income was associated with self-rated physical health in the middle and old age group. CONCLUSION These results indicated social inequalities in self-rated health and prominent social inequalities in self-rated health among females in Japan. Social inequalities in self-rated health seemed to exist across age groups. However, the mechanism of social inequalities in self-rated health could be different depending on the age group.

Twelve‐month use of mental health services in four areas in Japan: Findings from the World Mental Health Japan Survey 2002–2003

Abstract  The aim of the present study was to provide basic descriptive data regarding utilization of 12‐month mental health services in the Japanese community population. Face‐to‐face household surveys were carried out in four areas (two urban cities and two rural municipalities), and a total of 1663 persons participated (overall response rate: 56.4%). For data collection, the structured psychiatric interview, World Mental Health version of the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WMH‐CIDI) was used, allowing DSM‐IV diagnoses, severity, and service utilization. It was found that 7.3% of total respondents had received any service, either professional or non‐professional, in the past 12 months, including 20.0% of those with 12‐month DSM‐IV disorders and 6.2% of those without. Thirty‐three percent of those with any mood disorder used any service, and 26.8% of those used some type of health care. The probability of people with 13–15 years of education receiving mental health treatment was fourfold higher than those with ≥16 years of education. Gender, age, or income were not found to contribute to utilization of mental health services. The results confirm that the majority of people with a recent psychiatric disorder have not used mental health care or other support systems. The mental health care system in Japan has improved over the past decade, but not enough for people suffering from mental disturbances.