Tadayoshi Takeuchi

The Active Site Cysteine of the Proapoptotic Protein Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase Is Essential in Oxidative Stress-induced Aggregation and Cell Death

Recent studies have revealed that the redox-sensitive glycolytic enzyme, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), is involved in neuronal cell death that is triggered by oxidative stress. GAPDH is locally deposited in disulfide-bonded aggregates at lesion sites in certain neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism that underlies oxidative stress-induced aggregation of GAPDH and the relationship between structural abnormalities in GAPDH and cell death. Under nonreducing in vitro conditions, oxidants induced oligomerization and insoluble aggregation of GAPDH via the formation of intermolecular disulfide bonds. Because GAPDH has four cysteine residues, including the active site Cys149, we prepared the cysteine-substituted mutants C149S, C153S, C244A, C281S, and C149S/C281S to identify which is responsible for disulfide-bonded aggregation. Whereas the aggregation levels of C281S were reduced compared with the wild-type enzyme, neither C149S nor C149S/C281S aggregated, suggesting that the active site cysteine plays an essential role. Oxidants also caused conformational changes in GAPDH concomitant with an increase in β-sheet content; these abnormal conformations specifically led to amyloid-like fibril formation via disulfide bonds, including Cys149. Additionally, continuous exposure of GAPDH-overexpressing HeLa cells to oxidants produced disulfide bonds in GAPDH leading to both detergent-insoluble and thioflavin-S-positive aggregates, which were associated with oxidative stress-induced cell death. Thus, oxidative stresses induce amyloid-like aggregation of GAPDH via aberrant disulfide bonds of the active site cysteine, and the formation of such abnormal aggregates promotes cell death.

Essential role of nitric oxide in descending inhibition in the rat proximal colon

Possible mediators of descending inhibition in the rat proximal colon were studied. Localized distension with a small balloon caused relaxation of the circular muscle on the anal side of the distended region. This relaxation was still observed after the colonic segment had been desensitized to ATP, neurotensin and vasoactive intestinal peptide, so these compounds seem unlikely to mediate descending inhibition. Nitro-arginine inhibited the relaxation induced by the distension, and L-arginine counteracted the effect of nitro-arginine. Nitric oxide, isoamylnitrate and sodium nitroprusside caused relaxation. These results strongly suggest an essential role of nitric oxide in descending relaxation in the rat proximal colon.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase Aggregate Formation Participates in Oxidative Stress-induced Cell Death

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH)2 is a classic glycolytic enzyme that also mediates cell death by its nuclear translocation under oxidative stress. Meanwhile, we previously presented that oxidative stress induced disulfide-bonded GAPDH aggregation in vitro. Here, we propose that GAPDH aggregate formation might participate in oxidative stress-induced cell death both in vitro and in vivo. We show that human GAPDH amyloid-like aggregate formation depends on the active site cysteine-152 (Cys-152) in vitro. In SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma, treatment with dopamine decreases the cell viability concentration-dependently (IC50 = 202 μm). Low concentrations of dopamine (50–100 μm) mainly cause nuclear translocation of GAPDH, whereas the levels of GAPDH aggregates correlate with high concentrations of dopamine (200–300 μm)-induced cell death. Doxycycline-inducible overexpression of wild-type GAPDH in SH-SY5Y, but not the Cys-152-substituted mutant (C152A-GAPDH), accelerates cell death accompanying both endogenous and exogenous GAPDH aggregate formation in response to high concentrations of dopamine. Deprenyl, a blocker of GAPDH nuclear translocation, fails to inhibit the aggregation both in vitro and in cells but reduced cell death in SH-SY5Y treated with only a low concentration of dopamine (100 μm). These results suggest that GAPDH participates in oxidative stress-induced cell death via an alternative mechanism in which aggregation but not nuclear translocation of GAPDH plays a role. Moreover, we observe endogenous GAPDH aggregate formation in nigra-striatum dopaminergic neurons after methamphetamine treatment in mice. In transgenic mice overexpressing wild-type GAPDH, increased dopaminergic neuron loss and GAPDH aggregate formation are observed. These data suggest a critical role of GAPDH aggregates in oxidative stress-induced brain damage.

VIP‐ and PACAP‐mediated nonadrenergic, noncholinergic inhibition in longitudinal muscle of rat distal colon: involvement of activation of charybdotoxin‐ and apamin‐sensitive K+ channels

1 The mediators of nonadrenergic, noncholinergic (NANC) inhibitory responses in longitudinal muscle of rat distal colon were studied. 2 An antagonist of pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide (PACAP) receptors, PACAP6–38, concentration‐dependently inhibited the rapid relaxation of the longitudinal muscle induced by electrical field stimulation (EFS), resulting in a maximal inhibition of 47% at 3 μm. 3 PACAP6–38 inhibited the relaxation by 75% in the presence of the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptor antagonist, VIP10–28 at μm, which inhibited the relaxation by 44%. 4 An antagonist of large conductance Ca2+‐activated K+ channels, charybdotoxin, concentration‐dependently inhibited the rapid relaxation of the longitudinal muscle, resulting in a maximal inhibition of 58% at 100 nM. 5 An antagonist of small conductance Ca2+‐activated K+ channels, apamin, concentration‐dependently inhibited the relaxation (58% at 1 μm). 6 Treatment with both K+ channel antagonists resulted in 84% inhibition of the EFS‐induced relaxation, which is comparable to the extent of inhibition induced by PACAP6–38 plus VIP10–28. 7 The inhibitory effect of VIP10–28 and of apamin, but not of charybdotoxin was additive: the same applied to PACAP6–38 and charybdotoxin, but not apamin. 8 Exogenously added VIP (100 nM‐1 μm) induced a slow gradual relaxation of the longitudinal muscle. Charybdotoxin, but not apamin significantly inhibited the VIP‐induced relaxation. VIP10–28, but not PACAP6–38 selectively inhibited the VIP‐induced relaxation. 9 Exogenously added PACAP (10–100 nM) also induced slow relaxation. Apamin and to a lesser extent, charybdotoxin, inhibited the PACAP‐induced relaxation. PACAP6–38, but not VIP10–28 selectively inhibited the PACAP‐induced relaxation. 10 Apamin at 100 nM inhibited inhibitory junction potentials (i.j.ps) induced by a single pulse of EFS. Apamin also inhibited a rapid phase, but not a delayed phase of i.j.ps induced by two pulses at 10 Hz. VIP10–28 did not inhibit i.j.ps induced by a single pulse, but significantly inhibited the delayed phase at two pulses. A combination of apamin and VIP10–28 abolished the i.j.ps induced by two pulses. 11 Both VIP and PACAP induced slow hyperpolarization of the cell membrane of the longitudinal muscle. Apamin inhibited the PACAP‐, but not VIP‐induced hyperpolarization. 12 From these findings it is suggested that VIP and PACAP are involved in NANC inhibitory responses of longitudinal muscle of the rat distal colon via activation of charybdotoxin‐ and apaminsensitive K+ channels, respectively.

Key roles of nitric oxide and cyclic GMP in nonadrenergic and noncholinergic inhibition in rat ileum

Nonadrenergic and noncholinergic (NANC) inhibitory responses in circular and longitudinal muscles of the rat ileum were studied separately in vitro. Localized distension with a small balloon caused relaxation of the circular muscle on the anal side of the distended region. Nitro-arginine inhibited the relaxation and L-arginine counteracted the effect of nitro-arginine. Treatment of the preparation with superoxide dismutase (SOD) and methylene blue resulted in enhancement and inhibition, respectively, of the relaxation induced by distension. Nitric oxide caused relaxation of the circular muscle in a dose-dependent manner. 8-Bromo cyclic GMP (cGMP) caused relaxation of the circular muscle. Electrical transmural stimulation caused relaxation followed by a rebound contraction of the longitudinal muscle. Nitro-arginine inhibited the relaxation and L-arginine counteracted this inhibition. Similar results to those in the circular muscle were obtained in the longitudinal muscle with SOD, methylene blue, nitric oxide and 8-bromo cGMP. Electrical field stimulation increased the cGMP content of the longitudinal muscle preparation. Nitric oxide also increased the cGMP content of smooth muscle cells obtained from circular and longitudinal muscles of rat ileum. Preincubation of smooth muscle cells with methylene blue inhibited the effect of nitric oxide on the cGMP content. These results suggest a key role of cGMP in NANC inhibitory responses in rat ileum. The factors mediating the responses are discussed.

Interleukin-19 protects mice from innate-mediated colonic inflammation

Background: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) results from the chronic dysregulation of the mucosal immune system and the aberrant activation of both the innate and the adaptive immune responses. We used two complementary models of colonic inflammation to examine the roles of interleukin (IL)‐19 in colonic inflammation and thus its possible role in IBD. Methods: Using gene‐targeting, we generated IL‐19‐deficient mice. To study the activation of the innate immune response during colonic inflammation we characterized an innate immune‐mediated model of colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). DSS can induce not only acute colitis but also chronic colitis. In addition to the acute DSS‐induced colitis model, we used a chronic DSS‐induced colitis model that is associated with the activation of both Th1 and Th2 cytokines as well as innate immune response in the colon. Results: We show that IL‐19‐deficient mice are more susceptible to experimental acute colitis induced by DSS, and this increased susceptibility is correlated with the accumulation of macrophages and the increased production of IFN‐&ggr;, IL‐1&bgr;, IL‐6, IL‐12, TNF‐&agr;, and KC. Additionally, cytokine production in IL‐19‐deficient macrophages was enhanced on stimulation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) through reduced phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT3. Moreover, our results clearly demonstrate that IL‐19 is required for B‐cell infiltration during chronic DSS‐induced colitis, which may be mediated by IL‐13 and IL‐6. Conclusions: The finding that IL‐19 drives pathogenic innate immune responses in the colon suggests that the selective targeting of IL‐19 may be an effective therapeutic approach in the treatment of human IBD. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2009

Mediators of nonadrenergic, noncholinergic inhibition in the proximal, middle and distal regions of rat colon.

1 The mediators of non‐adrenergic non‐cholinergic (NANC) relaxation of the longitudinal muscle of rat proximal, middle and distal colon were examined in vitro. 2 Electrical transmural stimulation (TMS) of proximal, middle and distal segments of rat colon induced NANC relaxations which were inhibited by tetrodotoxin (1 μm), but not by atropine (1 μm) or guanethidine (4 μm). 3 In the proximal colon, l‐nitro‐arginine (N5‐nitroamidino‐l‐2,5‐diaminopentanoic acid) inhibited the TMS‐induced NANC relaxation and l‐arginine (1 mm) reversed this inhibition. Nitric oxide (0.3–10 μm) induced relaxation of the proximal segment. 4 NANC relaxation of the proximal segments was still evident after desensitization to vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). A VIP antagonist (VIP 10–28, 10 μm) had no effect on the TMS‐induced NANC relaxation, which was also resistant to α‐chymotrypsin (2 units ml−1) and a substance P antagonist ([d‐Pro2, d‐Trp7,9]substance P, 1 μm). 5 In the middle colon, l‐nitro‐arginine did not inhibit the TMS‐induced NANC relaxation in 6 of 9 preparations tested and partially inhibited the relaxation in the other 3 preparations. l‐Arginine did not reverse the partial inhibition. 6 Complete desensitization to VIP was not achieved in the middle colon. The VIP antagonist had no effect on the TMS‐induced NANC relaxation. After α‐chymotrypsin treatment of the segment, desensitization of the segments to substance P, or in the presence of the substance P antagonist, the TMS‐induced NANC relaxation was augmented. 7 In the distal colon, l‐nitro‐arginine did not have any significant effect on the TMS‐induced relaxation and nitric oxide did not induce relaxation. The VIP antagonist significantly inhibited TMS‐induced NANC relaxation. α‐Chymotrypsin‐treatment of the distal segments resulted in significant inhibition of NANC relaxation. No desensitization to substance P was achieved. Treatment with the substance P antagonist had no effect. 8 These results suggest that nitric oxide is the mediator of the NANC inhibitory response in the proximal region of rat colon; in the middle colon, substance P acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter, antagonizing the NANC relaxation caused by the mediator of the response, which is still uncertain. Our results also suggest that VIP is the most likely candidate as a NANC transmitter in the distal colon.

Critical role of sulfenic acid formation of thiols in the inactivation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase by nitric oxide.

The relationship between possible modifications of the thiol groups of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by nitric oxide (NO) and modified enzyme activity was examined. There are 16 free thiols, including 4 active site thiols, in a tetramer of GAPDH molecule. NO donors, sodium nitroprusside (SNP), and S-nitroso-N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine (SNAP) decreased the number of free thiols with a concomitant inhibition of GAPDH activity in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. After treatment for 30 min, free thiols were maximally decreased to 8-10 per GAPDH tetramer and enzyme activity was also inhibited to 5-10% of control activity. In the presence of 30 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), these effects were completely blocked. Since similar results were obtained in the case of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) treatment, which is known to oxidize the thiols, these effects of nitric oxide donors were probably due to modification of thiol groups present in a GAPDH molecule. On the other hand, DTT posttreatment after the treatment of GAPDH with SNP, SNAP, or H2O2 did not completely restore the modified thiols and the inhibited enzyme activity. DTT posttreatment after the 30-min-treatment with these agents restored free thiols to 14 in all treatments. In the case of SNAP treatment, all 4 active sites were restored and enzyme activity reached more than 80% of the control activity, but in two other cases one active site remained modified and enzyme activity was restored to about only 20%. Therefore, all 4 free thiols in the active site seem to be very important for full enzyme activity. DTT posttreatment in the presence of sodium arsenite, which is known to reduce sulfenic acid to thiol, almost completely restored both thiol groups and enzyme activity. These findings suggest that nitric oxide inhibits GAPDH activity by modifications of the thiols which are essential for this activity, and that the modification includes formation of sulfenic acid, which is not restored by DTT. S-nitrosylation, which is one type of thiol modification by NO, occurred when GAPDH was treated with SNAP but not SNP. Analysis of thiol modification showed that SNAP preferentially nitrosylated the active site thiols, the nitrosylation of which fully disappeared by DTT posttreatment. It seems that SNAP nitrosylates the active site thiols of GAPDH to prevent these thiols from oxidizing to sulfenic acid.

PACAP provides colonic protection against dextran sodium sulfate induced colitis

Pituitary adenylate cyclase‐activating polypeptide (PACAP) plays a crucial role in immunity and inflammation. Our aim was to obtain insight in the role of PACAP in experimental colitis in mice and thus its possible role in inflammatory bowel disease. PACAP‐deficient (PACAP−/−) mice and wild‐type control mice were challenged by colitis‐inducing agent, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). We monitored clinical symptoms, intestinal morphology, and difference of cytokine production in the proximal and distal colon. After DSS administration, mortality was more severe in PACAP−/− mice versus wild‐type control mice. The histological score and the disease activity index of PACAP−/− mice were significantly higher than those of wild‐type control mice. In proximal colon, production of IL‐1β and IL‐6 in PACAP−/− mice were significantly upregulated on day 8 after DSS administration, compared to wild‐type control mice. In distal colon, furthermore, production of IFNγ, IL‐1β, IL‐6, IL‐12, and KC were significantly higher in PACAP−/− mice than in wild‐type control mice on day 4. Our findings indicate that PACAP regulates the production of pro‐inflammatory cytokine in the experimental colitis. J. Cell. Physiol. 216: 111–119, 2008.

Inhibition of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+‐ATPase by nitric oxide

The effects of nitric oxide on the activities of thapsigargin‐sensitive sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+‐ATPase (SERCA) and Ca2+ uptake by sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membranes prepared from white skeletal muscle of rabbit femoral muscle were studied. Pretreatment of the SR preparations with nitric oxide at concentrations of up to 250 μM for 1 min decreased the SERCA activity concentration dependently, and also decreased their Ca2+ uptake. Both these effects of nitric oxide were reversible. Inhibitors of guanylyl cyclase and protein kinase G (PKG) had no significant effect on the nitric oxide‐induced inhibitions of SERCA and Ca2+ uptake. Moreover, dithiothreitol did not reverse the inhibitory effects of nitric oxide on SERCA and Ca2+ uptake. These findings suggest that nitric oxide inhibits SERCA, mainly SERCA 1, of rabbit femoral skeletal muscle by an action independent of the cyclic GMP‐PKG system or oxidation of thiols, and probably by a direct action on SERCA protein.