Takashi J. Moriya

A new route towards merging massive black holes

Recent advances in gravitational-wave astronomy make the direct detection of gravitational waves from the merger of two stellar-mass compact objects a realistic prospect. Evolutionary scenarios towards mergers of double compact objects generally invoke common-envelope evolution which is poorly understood, leading to large uncertainties in merger rates. We explore the alternative scenario of massive overcontact binary (MOB) evolution, which involves two very massive stars in a very tight binary which remain fully mixed due to their tidally induced high spin. We use the public stellar-evolution code MESA to systematically study this channel by means of detailed simulations. We find that, at low metallicity, MOBs produce double-black-hole (BH+BH) systems that will merge within a Hubble time with mass ratios close to one, in two mass ranges, ~25...60msun and >~ 130msun, with pair instability supernovae (PISNe) being produced in-between. Our models are also able to reproduce counterparts of various stages in the MOB scenario in the local Universe, providing direct support for it. We map the initial parameter space that produces BH+BH mergers, determine the expected chirp mass distribution, merger times, Kerr parameters and predict event rates. We typically find that for Z~<Z_sun/10, there is one BH+BH merger for ~1000 core-collapse supernovae. The advanced LIGO (aLIGO) detection rate is more uncertain and depends on the metallicity evolution. Deriving upper and lower limits from a local and a global approximation for the metallicity distribution of massive stars, we estimate aLIGO detection rates (at design limit) of ~19-550 yr^(-1) for BH+BH mergers below the PISN gap and of ~2.1-370 yr^(-1) above the PISN gap. Even with conservative assumptions, we find that aLIGO should soon detect BH+BH mergers from the MOB scenario and that these could be the dominant source for aLIGO detections.

Light-curve modelling of superluminous supernova 2006gy: collision between supernova ejecta and a dense circumstellar medium

We show model light curves of superluminous supernova 2006gy on the assumption that the supernova is powered by the collision of supernova ejecta and its dense circumstellar medium. The initial conditions are constructed based on the shock breakout condition, assuming that the circumstellar medium is dense enough to cause the shock breakout within it. We perform a set of numerical light curve calculations by using a one-dimensional multigroup radiation hydrodynamics code STELLA. We succeeded in reproducing the overall features of the early light curve of SN 2006gy with the circumstellar medium whose mass is about 15 Msun (the average mass-loss rate ~ 0.1 Msun/yr). Thus, the progenitor of SN 2006gy is likely a very massive star. The density profile of the circumstellar medium is not well constrained by the light curve modeling only, but our modeling disfavors the circumstellar medium formed by steady mass loss. The ejecta mass is estimated to be comparable to or less than 15 Msun and the explosion energy is expected to be more than 4e51 erg. No 56Ni is required to explain the early light curve. We find that the multidimensional effect, e.g., the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, which is expected to take place in the cool dense shell between the supernova ejecta and the dense circumstellar medium, is important in understanding supernovae powered by the shock interaction. We also show the evolution of the optical and near-infrared model light curves of high-redshift superluminous supernovae. They can be potentially used to identify SN 2006gy-like superluminous supernovae in the future optical and near-infrared transient surveys.

Fallback supernovae: a possible origin of peculiar supernovae with extremely low explosion energies

We perform hydrodynamical calculations of core-collapse supernovae (SNe) with low explosion energies. These SNe do not have enough energy to eject the whole progenitor and most of the progenitor falls back to the central remnant. We show that such fallback SNe can have a variety of light curves (LCs) but their photospheric velocities can only have some limited values with lower limits. We also perform calculations of nucleosynthesis and LCs of several fallback SN models, and find that a fallback SN from the progenitor with a main-sequence mass of 13 M ? can account for the properties of the peculiar Type Ia supernova SN 2008ha. The kinetic energy and ejecta mass of the model are 1.2 ? 1048?erg and 0.074 M ?, respectively, and the ejected 56Ni mass is 0.003 M ?. Thus, SN 2008ha can be a core-collapse SN with a large amount of fallback. We also suggest that SN 2008ha could have been accompanied by long gamma-ray bursts, and long gamma-ray bursts without associated SNe may be accompanied by very faint SNe with significant amount of fallback, which are similar to SN 2008ha.

A CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVA MODEL FOR THE EXTREMELY LUMINOUS TYPE Ic SUPERNOVA 2007bi: AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE PAIR-INSTABILITY SUPERNOVA MODEL

We present a core-collapse supernova (SN) model for the extremely luminous Type Ic SN 2007bi. By performing numerical calculations of hydrodynamics, nucleosynthesis, and radiation transport, we find that SN 2007bi is consistent with the core-collapse SN explosion of a 43 M ☉ carbon and oxygen core obtained from the evolution of a progenitor star with a main-sequence mass of 100 M ☉ and metallicity of Z = Z ☉/200, from which its hydrogen and helium envelopes are artificially stripped. The ejecta mass and the ejecta kinetic energy of the models are 40 M ☉ and 3.6 × 1052 erg. The ejected 56Ni mass is as large as 6.1 M ☉, which results from the explosive nucleosynthesis with large explosion energy. We also confirm that SN 2007bi is consistent with a pair-instability SN model as has recently been claimed. We show that the earlier light-curve data can discriminate between the models for such luminous SNe.

Supernovae from Red Supergiants with Extensive Mass Loss

We calculate multicolour light curves (LCs) of supernovae (SNe) from red supergiants (RSGs) that have exploded within a dense circumstellar medium (CSM). Multicolour LCs are calculated by using the multigroup radiation hydrodynamics code STELLA. If the CSM is dense enough, the shock breakout signal is delayed and smeared by the CSM and the kinetic energy of SN ejecta is efficiently converted to thermal energy, which is eventually released as radiation. We find that explosions of RSGs are affected by the CSM in the early epochs, when the mass-loss rate just before the explosions is higher than ∼10 ―4 M ⊙ yr ―1 . Their characteristic features are that the LC has a luminous round peak followed by a flat part, that multicolour LCs are simultaneously bright in both ultraviolet and optical at the peak, and that the photo-spheric velocity is very low at these epochs. We calculate LCs for various CSM conditions and explosion properties, i.e. mass-loss rates, radii of the CSM, density slopes of the CSM, explosion energies of SN ejecta and the SN progenitors contained within, to see their influence. We compare our model LCs with those of ultraviolet-bright Type IIP SN 2009kf and show that the mass-loss rate of the progenitor of SN 2009kf just before the explosion is likely to be higher than 10- 4 M ⊙ yr ―1 . Combined with the fact that SN 2009kf is likely to be an energetic explosion and has large 56 Ni production, which implies that the progenitor of SN 2009kf is a massive RSG, our results indicate that there could be some mechanism to induce extensive mass loss in massive RSGs just before their explosions.

Mass-loss histories of Type IIn supernova progenitors within decades before their explosion

We present results of a systematic study of the mass-loss properties of Type IIn supernova progenitors within decades before their explosion. We apply an analytic light-curve model to 11 Type IIn supernova bolometric light curves to derive the circumstellar medium properties. We reconstruct the mass-loss histories based on the estimated circumstellar medium properties. The estimated mass-loss rates are mostly higher than 10(-3) M-circle dot yr(-1) and they are consistent with those obtained by other methods. The mass-loss rates are often found to be constantly high within decades before their explosion. This indicates that there exists some mechanism to sustain the high mass-loss rates of Type IIn supernova progenitors for at least decades before their explosion. Thus, the shorter eruptive mass-loss events observed in some Type IIn supernova progenitors are not always responsible for creating their dense circumstellar media. In addition, we find that Type IIn supernova progenitors may tend to increase their mass-loss rates as they approach to the time of their explosion. We also show a detailed comparison between our analytic prediction and numerical results.

Detectability of high-redshift superluminous supernovae with upcoming optical and near-infrared surveys

Observations of high-redshift supernovae (SNe) open a novel opportunity to study the massive star population in the early Universe. We study the detectability of superluminous SNe with upcoming optical and near-infrared (NIR) surveys. Our calculations are based on the cosmic star-formation history, the SN occurrence rate, the characteristic colour and the light curve of the SNe, which are all calibrated using available observations. We show that 15–150 SNe up to z∼ 4 will be discovered by the proposed Subaru/Hyper Suprime-Cam deep survey, a 30-deg2 survey with 24.5 AB mag depth in the z band for 3 months. With its ultradeep layer (3.5 deg2 with 25.6 AB mag depth in the z band for 4 months), the highest redshift can be extended to z∼ 5. We further explore the detectability by upcoming NIR surveys utilizing future satellites such as Euclid, WFIRST and WISH. The wide-field NIR surveys are very efficient at detecting high-redshift SNe. With a hypothetical deep NIR survey for 100 deg2 with 26 AB mag depth, at least ∼50 SNe will be discovered at z > 3 in half a year. The number of detected SNe can place a strong constraint on the stellar initial mass function or its slope, especially at the high-mass end. Superluminous SNe at high redshifts can be distinguished from other types of SNe by the long time-scale of their light curves in the observer’s frame, optical colours redder than other core-collapse SNe and NIR colours redder than any other type of SNe.

Detection of the gravitational lens magnifying a type Ia supernova.

Magnified Flare-Up The rise and fall of the luminosity of a supernova detected in 2010 was typical for its class, but its apparent brightness was 30 times greater than similar events. Quimby et al. (p. 396) compared spectra from the time of peak brightness and after the supernova faded, from which they concluded that something was interfering with our line of sight to the supernova. A previously unknown foreground galaxy turned out to be acting as a lens, bending and magnifying the light from the supernova. Potentially, spacetime warping like this could allow direct testing of cosmic expansion. An unusually bright supernova faded away to reveal a foreground galaxy responsible for bending and amplifying its light. Objects of known brightness, like type Ia supernovae (SNIa), can be used to measure distances. If a massive object warps spacetime to form multiple images of a background SNIa, a direct test of cosmic expansion is also possible. However, these lensing events must first be distinguished from other rare phenomena. Recently, a supernova was found to shine much brighter than normal for its distance, which resulted in a debate: Was it a new type of superluminous supernova or a normal SNIa magnified by a hidden gravitational lens? Here, we report that a spectrum obtained after the supernova faded away shows the presence of a foreground galaxy—the first found to strongly magnify a SNIa. We discuss how more lensed SNIa can be found than previously predicted.

An analytic bolometric light curve model of interaction-powered supernovae and its application to Type IIn supernovae

We present an analytic model for bolometric light curves which are powered by the interaction between supernova ejecta and a dense circumstellar medium. This model is aimed at modelling Type IIn supernovae to determine the properties of their supernova ejecta and circumstellar medium. Our model is not restricted to the case of steady mass loss and can be applied broadly. We only consider the case in which the optical depth of the unshocked circumstellar medium is not high enough to affect the light curves. We derive the luminosity evolution based on an analytic solution for the evolution of a dense shell created by the interaction. We compare our model bolometric light curves to observed bolometric light curves of three Type IIn supernovae (2005ip, 2006jd, 2010jl) and show that our model can constrain their supernova ejecta and circumstellar medium properties. Our analytic model is supported by numerical light curves from the same initial conditions.

Interacting supernovae from photoionization-confined shells around red supergiant stars.

Betelgeuse, a nearby red supergiant, is a fast-moving star with a powerful stellar wind that drives a bow shock into its surroundings. This picture has been challenged by the discovery of a dense and almost static shell that is three times closer to the star than the bow shock and has been decelerated by some external force. The two physically distinct structures cannot both be formed by the hydrodynamic interaction of the wind with the interstellar medium. Here we report that a model in which Betelgeuse’s wind is photoionized by radiation from external sources can explain the static shell without requiring a new understanding of the bow shock. Pressure from the photoionized wind generates a standing shock in the neutral part of the wind and forms an almost static, photoionization-confined shell. Other red supergiants should have much more massive shells than Betelgeuse, because the photoionization-confined shell traps up to 35 per cent of all mass lost during the red supergiant phase, confining this gas close to the star until it explodes. After the supernova explosion, massive shells dramatically affect the supernova light curve, providing a natural explanation for the many supernovae that have signatures of circumstellar interaction.