Takuya Akagawa

Comparing three UV wavelengths for pre‐exposing Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3 films

Gafchromic films are used for X‐ray dose measurements during diagnostic examinations and have begun to be used for three‐dimensional X‐ray dose measurements using the high‐resolution characteristics of Gafchromic films for computed tomography. However, the problem of unevenness in Gafchromic film active layers needs to be resolved. Double exposures using X‐rays are performed during therapeutic radiology, although this is difficult for a diagnostic examination because of a heel effect. Thus, it has been suggested that ultraviolet (UV) radiation be used as a substitute for X‐rays. However, the appropriate UV wavelength has not been determined. Thus, we conducted this study to decide an appropriate UV wavelength. UV peak wavelengths of 245 nm (UV‐A), 310 nm (UV‐B), and 365 nm (UV‐C) were used to irradiate EBT2 and EBT3 films. Each UV wavelength was irradiated for 5, 15, 30, and 60 min, and irradiation was then repeated every 60 min up to 360 min. Gafchromic films were scanned after every irradiation using a flatbed scanner. Images were split into RGB images, and red images were analyzed using ImageJ, version 1.44, image analysis software. A region of interest (ROI) one‐half inch in diameter was placed in the center of subtracted Gafchromic film images, and UV irradiation times were plotted against mean pixel values. There were reactions in the front and back of Gafchromic EBT3 and the back of Gafchromic EBT2 with UV‐A and UV‐B. However, UV‐C resulted in some reactions in both sides of Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3. The UV‐A and UV‐B wavelengths should be used. PACS number(s): 87.53 BnGafchromic films are used for X-ray dose measurements during diagnostic examinations and have begun to be used for three-dimensional X-ray dose measurements using the high-resolution characteristics of Gafchromic films for computed tomography. However, the problem of unevenness in Gafchromic film active layers needs to be resolved. Double exposures using X-rays are performed during therapeutic radiology, although this is difficult for a diagnostic examination because of a heel effect. Thus, it has been suggested that ultraviolet (UV) radiation be used as a substitute for X-rays. However, the appropriate UV wavelength has not been determined. Thus, we conducted this study to decide an appropriate UV wavelength. UV peak wavelengths of 245 nm (UV-A), 310 nm (UV-B), and 365 nm (UV-C) were used to irradiate EBT2 and EBT3 films. Each UV wavelength was irradiated for 5, 15, 30, and 60 min, and irradiation was then repeated every 60 min up to 360 min. Gafchromic films were scanned after every irradiation using a flatbed scanner. Images were split into RGB images, and red images were analyzed using ImageJ, version 1.44, image analysis software. A region of interest (ROI) one-half inch in diameter was placed in the center of subtracted Gafchromic film images, and UV irradiation times were plotted against mean pixel values. There were reactions in the front and back of Gafchromic EBT3 and the back of Gafchromic EBT2 with UV-A and UV-B. However, UV-C resulted in some reactions in both sides of Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3. The UV-A and UV-B wavelengths should be used. PACS number(s): 87.53 Bn.

Correction of nonuniformity error of Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3

This study investigates an X‐ray dose measurement method for computed tomography using Gafchromic films. Nonuniformity of the active layer is a major problem in Gafchromic films. In radiotherapy, nonuniformity error is reduced by applying the double‐exposure technique, but this is impractical in diagnostic radiology because of the heel effect. Therefore, we propose replacing the X‐rays in the double‐exposure technique with ultraviolet (UV)‐A irradiation of Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3. To improve the reproducibility of the scan position, Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3 films were attached to a 3‐mm‐thick acrylic plate. The samples were then irradiated with a 10 W UV‐A fluorescent lamp placed at a distance of 72 cm for 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The profile curves were evaluated along the long and short axes of the film center, and the standard deviations of the pixel values were calculated over large areas of the films. Paired t‐test was performed. UV‐A irradiation exerted a significant effect on Gafchromic EBT2 (paired t‐test; p=0.0275) but not on EBT3 (paired t‐test; p=0.2785). Similarly, the homogeneity was improved in Gafchromic EBT2 but not in EBT3. Therefore, the double‐exposure technique under UV‐A irradiation is suitable only for EBT2 films. PACS number(s): 87.53 BnThis study investigates an X-ray dose measurement method for computed tomography using Gafchromic films. Nonuniformity of the active layer is a major problem in Gafchromic films. In radiotherapy, nonuniformity error is reduced by applying the double-exposure technique, but this is impractical in diagnostic radiology because of the heel effect. Therefore, we propose replacing the X-rays in the double-exposure technique with ultraviolet (UV)-A irradiation of Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3. To improve the reproducibility of the scan position, Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3 films were attached to a 3-mm-thick acrylic plate. The samples were then irradiated with a 10 W UV-A fluorescent lamp placed at a distance of 72 cm for 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The profile curves were evaluated along the long and short axes of the film center, and the standard deviations of the pixel values were calculated over large areas of the films. Paired t-test was performed. UV-A irradiation exerted a significant effect on Gafchromic EBT2 (paired t-test; p=0.0275) but not on EBT3 (paired t-test; p=0.2785). Similarly, the homogeneity was improved in Gafchromic EBT2 but not in EBT3. Therefore, the double-exposure technique under UV-A irradiation is suitable only for EBT2 films. PACS number(s): 87.53 Bn.

Effective energy measurement using radiochromic film: Application of a mobile scanner

Abstract The effective energy calculated using the half-value layer (HVL) is an important parameter for quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC). However constant monitoring has not been performed because measurements using an ionization chamber (IC) are time-consuming and complicated. To solve these problems, a method using radiochromic film (GAFCHROMIC EBT2 dosimetry film (GAF-EBT2) with slight energy dependency errors), a mobile scanner and step-shaped aluminum (SSAl) filter is developed. The results of the method using a mobile scanner were compared with those of the recommended method using an IC in order to evaluate its applicability. The difference ratios of the effective energies by each method using a mobile scanner with GAF-EBT2 were less than 5% compared with results of an IC. It is considered that this method offers a simple means of determining HVL for QA and QC consistently and quickly without the need for an IC dosimeter.

Noise reduction of radiochromic film: median filter processing of subtraction image

Pre-ultraviolet rays exposure is a useful method to reduce non-uniformity error of radiochromic films. However, dust and scratch noises such as spike noise disturb precise measurement. To reduce these noises, median filter processing is applied for pre-subtraction and subtraction images. To reduce non-uniformity error of the thickness unevenness of Gafchromic EBT film, ultraviolet rays were exposed to correct data. There were three kinds of images obtained: first ultraviolet exposure image, second ultraviolet exposure image and the subtraction image of both. Median filer processing was performed on all these images. Eleven kinds of median filter radius factors (0.0 to 5.0) were applied using image analysis software. Data and graphs were then estimated. The maximum pixels value of dust was 229 on the second ultraviolet exposure image of film 3. After median filter preprocessing, the pixel value of the noises were similar to the minimum value. A 2.0-radius median filer is a useful factor for processing. Noise reduction that affected data of estimated images may be applied to measure radiation doses on a variety of radiochromic films. Ultraviolet exposure and subtraction method with median filter processing enable precise measurement and high spatial resolution dose distribution.

Ultraviolet exposure of Gafchromic XR-RV3 and XR-SP2 films

Gafchromic film has been used for X‐ray dose measurement in diagnostic examinations. Their use has been initiated for three‐dimensional X‐ray dose measurement by using the high‐resolution characteristics of Gafchromic films in computed tomography. However, it is necessary to solve the problem of nonuniform thickness in the active layers of Gafchromic films. A double exposure technique using X‐rays is performed in therapeutic radiology; it is difficult to use in a diagnostic examination because of the heel effect. Therefore, it is suggested that ultraviolet (UV) rays be substituted for X‐rays. However, the appropriate UV wavelength is unknown. In this study, we aimed to determine which UV wavelengths are effective to expose Gafchromic XR‐RV3 and XR‐SP2. UV lamps with peak wavelengths of 245 nm, 310 nm, and 365 nm were used. The three UV wavelengths were used to irradiate Gafchromic XR‐RV3 and XR‐SP2 films for 60 min, and irradiation was repeated every 60 min for 600 min thereafter. Films were scanned after each irradiation period on a flatbed scanner. The images were split into their red‐green‐blue components, and red images were stored using ImageJ version 1.44o image analysis software. Regions of interest (ROI), 0.5 inches in diameter, were placed at the centers of the subtracted Gafchromic film images, and graphs of UV irradiation duration and mean pixel values were plotted. There were reactions to UV‐A on both Gafchromic XR‐RV3 and XR‐SP2; those to UV‐B were moderate. However, UV‐C demonstrated few reactions with Gafchromic XR‐RV3 and XR‐SP2. From these results, irradiation with UV‐A may be able to correct nonuniformity errors. Uniform UV‐A irradiation of Gafchromic films with large areas is possible, and UV rays can be used as a substitute for X‐rays in the double exposure technique. PACS number: 87.53 BnGafchromic film has been used for X-ray dose measurement in diagnostic examinations. Their use has been initiated for three-dimensional X-ray dose measurement by using the high-resolution characteristics of Gafchromic films in computed tomography. However, it is necessary to solve the problem of nonuniform thickness in the active layers of Gafchromic films. A double exposure technique using X-rays is performed in therapeutic radiology; it is difficult to use in a diagnostic examination because of the heel effect. Therefore, it is suggested that ultraviolet (UV) rays be substituted for X-rays. However, the appropriate UV wavelength is unknown. In this study, we aimed to determine which UV wavelengths are effective to expose Gafchromic XR-RV3 and XR-SP2. UV lamps with peak wavelengths of 245 nm, 310 nm, and 365 nm were used. The three UV wavelengths were used to irradiate Gafchromic XR-RV3 and XR-SP2 films for 60 min, and irradiation was repeated every 60 min for 600 min thereafter. Films were scanned after each irradiation period on a flatbed scanner. The images were split into their red-green-blue components, and red images were stored using ImageJ version 1.44o image analysis software. Regions of interest (ROI), 0.5 inches in diameter, were placed at the centers of the subtracted Gafchromic film images, and graphs of UV irradiation duration and mean pixel values were plotted. There were reactions to UV-A on both Gafchromic XR-RV3 and XR-SP2; those to UV-B were moderate. However, UV-C demonstrated few reactions with Gafchromic XR-RV3 and XR-SP2. From these results, irradiation with UV-A may be able to correct nonuniformity errors. Uniform UV-A irradiation of Gafchromic films with large areas is possible, and UV rays can be used as a substitute for X-rays in the double exposure technique. PACS number: 87.53 Bn.

Influence of Image Resolution Property on Aliasing Error of Digital Wiener Spectrum

The noise properties of a radiography system are commonly described by its wiener spectrum (WS). The two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform (2D-DFT) methods is the most commonly used and accepted techniques for measuring the digital WS. The 2D-DFT method has been adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as a noise-power spectrum. However, the digital WS contains the effects of aliasing error, and this error depends on the presampled modulation transfer function (MTF) of the digital radiography (DR) system. The aim of this work was to show the influence of the aliasing error of the digital WS when the image resolution property was changed. We examined the influence of the aliasing error using simulated noise images. Two types of noise images with same pixel size and different presampled MTFs were generated by using ImageJ (National Institutes of Health: NIH). These images were used to simulate the image resolutions of an indirect/direct flat panel detector (FPD). The theoretical WS of the simulation noise image can be derived from a standard deviation σ of the Gaussian filter and added noise. Simulated noise images were analysed using the 2D-DFT method. The WS values calculated from those simulation images were compared with the theoretical WS values. The WS values in the indirect and direct FPD increased, compared to the theoretical WS values. The average relative differences for frequencies up to the Nyquist frequency were 27.9% and 85.2%, respectively. The results showed that the degree of the influence of the aliasing error of the digital WS depends largely on the presampled MTF of the DR system. Therefore, we should take into account the impact of the aliasing error of the digital WS, in the comparison between DR systems with different presampled MTFs.

Temporal Characterization of the Flat-Bed Scanner Influencing Dosimetry Using Radiochromic Film

Radiochromic films (RFs) have been developed for the measurement of the absorbed dose of low-energy photons. RFs are self-developing and radiation sensitive, and the amount of darkening is proportional to the absorbed dose. RFs are easy to handle due to their insensitivity to interior room light. However, the precision of the measurement has been questioned because of the change in density caused by the scan timing of the image acquisition using a flat-bed scanner. In this study, the density change of a flat-bed scanner was investigated using the temporal and the repetition scans. To obtain the image density, Gafchromic XR-QA2 films (XR-QA2s) were irradiated at 0 and 20 mGy (air-kerma) using 75 kVp (30 keV). The XR-QA2s were scanned every hour (0–6 h) from power activation to investigate the temporal light source change of a flat-bed scanner (EPSON ES-10000G). In addition, ten consecutive scans were performed every hour. The scan parameters were RGB (48-bit) mode, 100 dpi, and reflection mode. Image data of the XR-QA2s were divided into R, G, and B modes, and the R (16-bit) mode was used. The temporal light source change after power activation was small. However, in ten consecutive scans, the density of the first scan was the highest. The densities decreased with more scans. This result indicated that the precision of the dose measurement has about a 3% error due to the repeated scans. To obtain an accurate dose measurement, the image data obtained under the same conditions, such as the same time from power activation or same number of consecutive scans, must be used.

Evaluation of Effective Energy Distribution of 320-Multidetector CT Using GAFCHROMIC EBT3

Knowledge of the effective energy of 320-multidetector computed tomography (CT) is important for quality assurance and quality control. Evaluation in two dimensions is necessary because the effective energy varies depending on the shape of the wedge filter located in the CT device. The purpose of this study was to measure the two-dimensional effective energy distribution of the CT using GAFCHROMIC EBT3 (EBT3), which has a weak energy dependence. The exposure parameters of the 320-multidetector CT were 120 kV, 500 mA, and 5.0 s, and the X-ray tube was stopped at the 0 o’clock position. To avoid scattered radiation, the distance between the EBT3 and other scatterers was set to 200 mm or more. The Al filter thickness was increased from 2 to 20 mm. The irradiated area was divided into 54 compartments, and the density attenuation ratio was measured. The half-value layers (HVLs) were determined using the density attenuation ratios. The effective energies were obtained from the HVLs, and the two-dimensional effective energy distribution was evaluated. Because the thickness of the wedge filter in the longitudinal direction (parallel to the bed) remained unchanged, the variation in the effective energy was negligible in this direction. On the other hand, in the lateral direction (perpendicular to the bed), because the wedge filter gradually thickened from the center to the side, the effective energy from the center to the side increased. The two-dimensional effective energy distribution of the CT could thus be measured using EBT3.

Determining optimum wavelength of ultraviolet rays to pre-exposure of non-uniformity error correction in Gafchromic EBT2 films

Abstract Gafchromic films have been used to measure X-ray doses in diagnostic radiology such as computed tomography. The double-exposure technique is used to correct non-uniformity error of Gafchromic EBT2 films. Because of the heel effect of diagnostic x-rays, ultraviolet A (UV-A) is intended to be used as a substitute for x-rays. When using a UV-A light-emitting diode (LED), it is necessary to determine the effective optimal UV wavelength for the active layer of Gafchromic EBT2 films. This study evaluated the relation between the increase in color density of Gafchromic EBT2 films and the UV wavelengths. First, to correct non-uniformity, a Gafchromic EBT2 film was pre-irradiated using uniform UV-A radiation for 60 min from a 72-cm distance. Second, the film was irradiated using a UV-LED with a wavelength of 353-410 nm for 60 min from a 5.3-cm distance. The maximum, minimum, and mean ± standard deviation (SD) of pixel values of the subtraction images were evaluated using 0.5 inches of a circular region of interest (ROI). The highest mean ± SD (8915.25 ± 608.86) of the pixel value was obtained at a wavelength of 375 nm. The results indicated that 375 nm is the most effective and sensitive wavelength of UV-A for Gafchromic EBT2 films and that UV-A can be used as a substitute for x-rays in the double-exposure technique.

Ultraviolet Ray Strength for Pre-irradiation in Gafchromic EBT2

Ultraviolet (UV) rays strength and density change of Gafchromic EBT2 were investigated. It has previously been suggested that UV rays can be used as a substitute for the X-ray double-irradiation technique to correct non-uniformity errors when using Gafchromic EBT2. Here, the appropriate strength of the UV-A rays for irradiating the active layer of Gafchromic EBT2 was investigated.