Tanos C. C. França

Antimalarial Activity of Potential Inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum Lactate Dehydrogenase Enzyme Selected by Docking Studies

The Plasmodium falciparum lactate dehydrogenase enzyme (PfLDH) has been considered as a potential molecular target for antimalarials due to this parasites dependence on glycolysis for energy production. Because the LDH enzymes found in P. vivax, P. malariae and P. ovale (pLDH) all exhibit ∼90% identity to PfLDH, it would be desirable to have new anti-pLDH drugs, particularly ones that are effective against P. falciparum, the most virulent species of human malaria. Our present work used docking studies to select potential inhibitors of pLDH, which were then tested for antimalarial activity against P. falciparum in vitro and P. berghei malaria in mice. A virtual screening in DrugBank for analogs of NADH (an essential cofactor to pLDH) and computational studies were undertaken, and the potential binding of the selected compounds to the PfLDH active site was analyzed using Molegro Virtual Docker software. Fifty compounds were selected based on their similarity to NADH. The compounds with the best binding energies (itraconazole, atorvastatin and posaconazole) were tested against P. falciparum chloroquine-resistant blood parasites. All three compounds proved to be active in two immunoenzymatic assays performed in parallel using monoclonals specific to PfLDH or a histidine rich protein (HRP2). The IC50 values for each drug in both tests were similar, were lowest for posaconazole (<5 µM) and were 40- and 100-fold less active than chloroquine. The compounds reduced P. berghei parasitemia in treated mice, in comparison to untreated controls; itraconazole was the least active compound. The results of these activity trials confirmed that molecular docking studies are an important strategy for discovering new antimalarial drugs. This approach is more practical and less expensive than discovering novel compounds that require studies on human toxicology, since these compounds are already commercially available and thus approved for human use.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations and QM/MM Studies of the Reactivation by 2-PAM of Tabun Inhibited Human Acethylcolinesterase

A elucidacao das rotas de reativacao da acetilcolinesterase humana (HuAChE) inibida por organofosforados e de crucial importância para o desenvolvimento de antidotos eficientes contra a intoxicacao causada por agentes de guerra quimica. Com o objetivo de contribuir para uma melhor compreensao do mecanismo de reativacao, foram aplicadas neste trabalho simulacoes de dinâmica molecular (DM) classica para estudar as interacoes entre a pralidoxima e aminoacidos do sitio ativo da HuAChE inibida pelo agente neurotoxico tabun. Alem disso, metodos hibridos de mecânica quântica/mecânica molecular (QM/MM) foram usados para propor um mecanismo de reativacao para a enzima inibida. Os resultados mostraram que a DM classica manteve a pralidoxima no interior do sitio ativo da enzima, em uma regiao favoravel a ocorrencia de uma possivel reacao de desfosforilacao, que foi confirmada por metodos de QM/MM, levando a proposta de um mecanismo de reativacao, energeticamente favoravel. The elucidation of the reactivation routes of human acetylcholinesterase (HuAChE) inhibited by organophosphorous compounds is of crucial importance to the development of efficient antidotes against poisoning by chemical warfare agents. In order to contribute to a better understanding of the reactivation mechanism, we applied, in this work, classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to study the interactions between pralidoxime and the active sites amino acids of HuAChE inhibited by the neurotoxic agent tabun. Further, quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) hybrid methods were used to propose a reactivation mechanism for the inhibited enzyme. The results showed that the classic MD kept pralidoxime inside the enzymes active site, in a favorable region to the occurrence of possible reactions of dephosphorilation, which were confirmed by QM/MM methods, and lead to the proposition of an energetically favorable mechanism of reactivation.

Design of New Chemotherapeutics Against the Deadly Anthrax Disease. Docking and Molecular Dynamics studies of Inhibitors Containing Pyrrolidine and Riboamidrazone Rings on Nucleoside Hydrolase from Bacillus anthracis

Abstract Anthrax is a disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, a dangerous biological warfare agent already used for both military and terrorist purposes. An important selective target for chemotherapy against this disease is nucleoside hydrolase (NH), an enzyme still not found in mammals. Having this in mind we have performed molecular docking studies, aiming to analyze the three-dimensional positioning of six known inhibitors of Trypanosoma vivax NH (TvNH) in the active site of B. anthracis NH (BaNH). We also analyzed the main interactions of these compounds with the active site residues of BaNH and the relevant factors to biological activity. These results, together with further molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, pointed out to the most promising compounds as lead for the design of potential inhibitors of BaNH. Most of the docking and MD results obtained corroborated to each other. Additionally, the docking results also suggested a good correlation with experimental data.

Development of new acetylcholinesterase reactivators: molecular modeling versus in vitro data.

In this work a theoretical methodology for evaluation of the association and kinetic reactivation constants of oximes using the Molegro and Spartan softwares was proposed and validated facing in vitro data previously reported in the literature. Results showed a very good agreement between the theoretical binding free energies of the reactivators and experimental data, suggesting that the proposed methodology could work well in the prediction of kinetic and thermodynamics parameters for oximes that might be helpful for the design and selection of new and more effective oximes.

Reactivation steps by 2-PAM of tabun-inhibited human acetylcholinesterase: reducing the computational cost in hybrid QM/MM methods

The present work describes a simple integrated Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics method developed to study the reactivation steps by pralidoxime (2-PAM) of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibited by the neurotoxic agent Tabun. The method was tested on an AChE model and showed to be able to corroborate most of the results obtained before, through a more complex and time-consuming methodology, proving to be suitable to this kind of mechanistic study at a lower computational cost.

Molecular dynamics of the interaction of pralidoxime and deazapralidoxime with acetylcholinesterase inhibited by the neurotoxic agent tabun

Efficient acetylcholinesterase reactivators are fundamental for the development of antidotes against poisoning by neurotoxic pesticides and chemical warfare agents. However, the mechanism of the reactivation reaction and the structural characteristics of the known reactivators are poorly understood. In order to study the dynamic behavior and the effect of the antidote net charge in the reactivation of this enzyme, we carried out a molecular dynamics study of human acetylcholinesterase inhibited by tabun in complex with the antidote pralidoxime and with its deaza analogues in the neutral and anionic forms. Results show that the positive charge of pralidoxime is important for its admission and permanence inside the active site. Also, the analogues, unlike pralidoxime, when forced inside the active site, move away from the phosphorilated serine residue of the enzyme and are repelled by the electrostatic potential at the entrance of the channel that conducts to the active site.

Molecular modeling and in vitro reactivation study between the oxime BI-6 and acetylcholinesterase inhibited by different nerve agents.

Nerve agents are organophosphates acting as potent inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of acetylcholine and, consequently, the termination of the transmission of nerve impulses. The inhibition of AChE by an organophosphate can be reversed by a nucleophilic agent able to dephosphorylate a serine residue in the active site of AChE. In this sense, the oximes are compounds capable of removing the nerve agent and reactivate the enzyme. Here, we have applied a methodology involving theoretical docking and Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics, using the softwares Molegro® and Spartan®, to evaluate the kinetic constants of reactivation and the interactions of the oxime BI-6 with AChE inhibited by different organophosphorus compounds in comparison to in vitro data. Results confirm that this method is suitable for the prediction of kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of oximes, which may be useful in the design and selection of new and more effective oximes.

Antimalarial activity and mechanisms of action of two novel 4-aminoquinolines against chloroquine-resistant parasites

Chloroquine (CQ) is a cost effective antimalarial drug with a relatively good safety profile (or therapeutic index). However, CQ is no longer used alone to treat patients with Plasmodium falciparum due to the emergence and spread of CQ-resistant strains, also reported for P. vivax. Despite CQ resistance, novel drug candidates based on the structure of CQ continue to be considered, as in the present work. One CQ analog was synthesized as monoquinoline (MAQ) and compared with a previously synthesized bisquinoline (BAQ), both tested against P. falciparum in vitro and against P. berghei in mice, then evaluated in vitro for their cytotoxicity and ability to inhibit hemozoin formation. Their interactions with residues present in the NADH binding site of P falciparum lactate dehydrogenase were evaluated using docking analysis software. Both compounds were active in the nanomolar range evaluated through the HRPII and hypoxanthine tests. MAQ and BAQ derivatives were not toxic, and both compounds significantly inhibited hemozoin formation, in a dose-dependent manner. MAQ had a higher selectivity index than BAQ and both compounds were weak PfLDH inhibitors, a result previously reported also for CQ. Taken together, the two CQ analogues represent promising molecules which seem to act in a crucial point for the parasite, inhibiting hemozoin formation.

Conformational Analysis of Toxogonine, TMB-4 and HI-6 using PM6 and RM1 Methods

In this work, after validation by comparison with results obtained by DFT, the semi-empirical methods RM1 and PM6 were employed to perform conformational analysis of three oximes employed in chemical defense. The results suggested low energy conformations for those compounds that could be useful in further parameterizations for molecular modeling studies.

Docking and molecular dynamics studies of peripheral site ligand–oximes as reactivators of sarin-inhibited human acetylcholinesterase

In the present work, we performed docking and molecular dynamics simulations studies on two groups of long-tailored oximes designed as peripheral site binders of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and potential penetrators on the blood brain barrier. Our studies permitted to determine how the tails anchor in the peripheral site of sarin-inhibited human AChE, and which aminoacids are important to their stabilization. Also the energy values obtained in the docking studies corroborated quite well with the experimental results obtained before for these oximes.