Tapio S. Katko

Public-Private Partnerships in Water and Sewerage Services: Privatization for Profit or Improvement of Service and Performance?

There is no empirical proof that private enterprises manage and operate facilities more efficiently than public ones. Instead of privatization, it is better to promote viable public-private partnerships and commercialization of services. The core businesses of water and sewage works should preferably be retained by a municipalityowned enterprise. In the selection of the mode(s) of water service implementation, one must consider the nature of the services, the long-term experiences, and transaction costs. The nature of water and sanitation service activity itself requires that long-term development should be considered in decision making. The institutional framework must be such that all parties benefit from cooperation. Whichever management or contract model is selected, the ownership of the utilities should preferably remain in the hands of municipalities whose decisions on services citizens should be able to influence through local democracy. The responsibility for arranging water services lies de facto with the public sector.

The Finnish Experience

Water and wastewater services in Finland are, according to international comparisons, exceptionally well organised. In Finland, as in industrialised countries in general, the public sector and particularly the municipalities have played a central role in the development of these services. Although municipalities are legally responsible for water and wastewater service provision, they do not have to produce these services themselves, and there are several alternatives for the ownership and operational management. There is no single model for how water and wastewater services should be organised—not even within a single country. Water and wastewater services should be looked at as multi-dimensional activities within a wider institutional context considering the roles of all stakeholders.1 1 This paper is based on several studies, especially on case studies produced by the European Union-funded projects PRINWASS (http://users.ox.ac.uk/∼prinwass/) and WaterTime (http://www.watertime.net/), the UNRISD project on private sector involvement in water supply as well as the recent doctoral dissertation of the first author (Pietilä, 2006).

Environmental History of Water - Global views on community water supply and sanitation

Contents: Part One: Early Systems and Innovations Part Two: Period of Slow Development Part Three: Modern Urban Infrastructure Part Four: Future Challenges in Water Supply and Sanitation Services and Environmental Health

Cost recovery in water supply in developing countries

This article discusses trends in cost recovery policies, costs, consumers’ ability and willingness to pay, water tariff structures, fee collection and financial management. Cost recovery, operational technology and appropriate institutions are the key requirements of sustainability. Commonly practised water vending and reselling, while a good indication of actual willingness to pay for water, is a very costly system. In practice free water supply benefits the rich. Progressive tariffs and innovative collection methods should be used instead.

Household water consumption and demand management in Finland

The aim of the paper is to describe and analyse the trends and levels of water consumption, especially of households, in Finland. The study concentrates on the specific household water consumption (SHWC) of various types of housing, housing ownership, metering and billing arrangements. Real estate managers acted as enumerators and collected data from 185 sub-cases in various parts of the country. The study shows that SHWC levels of about 120 l/capita/day, or even less, can be achieved, while maintaining a high standard of service levels. In addition to individual metering, proper management includes introduction of modern water fixtures and in-house piping, raising consumer awareness, and active follow-up. Explanations for declined consumption are quite site- and case specific. Simultaneously, decreasing consumption and the resulting fall in water sales are a challenge to water utilities.

Road Safety Fatalities, Management, and Policy in Finland, 1970-2003

In international comparison, Finland has one of the lowest rates of fatalities in road accidents per 100,000 people—8 in 2001. The rate of fatal accidents was the highest in 1972, close to 1,200, but by 2003, it had declined to 380 while the number of vehicles grew by 2.6 times during the same period. The article points out the major policy decisions and analyses of various political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legislative factors affecting this development. Traffic safety in terms of fatalities has evolved very positively for the past 35 years based on the various policies, principles, and practices. Yet improving traffic safety will be relatively more difficult in the future because relatively simpler means have already been introduced.

Water supply development and tariffs in Tanzania: From free water policy towards cost recovery

The article describes the historical development of water tariff policy in Tanzania from the colonial times to present. After gaining independence, the country introduced “free” water policy in its rural areas. Criticism against this policy was expressed already in the 1970s, but it was not until the late 1980s that change became unavoidable. All the while urban water tariffs continued to decline in real terms. In rural and periurban areas of Tanzania consumers often have to pay substantial amounts of money for water to resellers and vendors since the public utilities are unable to provide operative service. Besides, only a part of the water bills are actually collected. Now that the free water supply policy has been officially abandoned, the development of water tariffs and the institutions in general are a great challenge for the country.

Water pollution control and strategies in Finnish pulp and paper industries in the 20th century

This paper discusses and analyses the evolution of the Finnish pulp and paper industries and their water pollution control strategies. The Finnish pulp and paper mills are mainly located along water courses in inland areas. The earliest documents on water pollution date back to the early 1900s. In spite of the remarkably good record during recent decades in water pollution control, it can be found among significant strategic decisions in only very few cases.

Managed aquifer recharge in community water supply: the Finnish experience and some international comparisons

This paper analyzes the use of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) in community water supply in Finland and presents some international experiences for comparison. The framework of MAR consists of the natural environment and physical infrastructure, as well as socio-economic aspects, all of which are interrelated. Local conditions form the basis of an MAR system and to a large degree determine infiltration options and the most suitable methods. Finnish hydrogeology, climate and local conditions are highly comparable to those in Sweden but differ from those of other parts of Europe, Australia, the USA and Asia. This article provides a holistic view of MAR not only as a technical means of resource enhancement for water supply but also as an element interacting with the natural environment and society.

Priorities for Fresh Water Use Purposes in Selected Countries with Policy Implications

Priorities in water use purposes were studied by a two-phase questionnaire in 11 countries/regions on five continents with different water resources and use, socio-economic and cultural conditions. The first phase involved three regions: East Africa (1988), the Baltic region (1994) and Finland (1993, 2001). In the second phase (2001–02), water use purposes were to be viewed ‘as they are’ and ‘as they should be’. On average, community water supply was ranked first, nature conservation second and hydropower third. Priorities varied less than originally anticipated. Priorities should also be remembered in integrated water resources management.