Tary J. Tobin

Validity of Office Discipline Referral Measures as Indices of School-Wide Behavioral Status and Effects of School-Wide Behavioral Interventions

Office discipline referrals (ODRs) are widely used by school personnel to evaluate student behavior and the behavioral climate of schools. In this article, the authors report the results of a review of the relevant literature to evaluate the validity of ODR data as indices of school-wide behavioral climate, the effects of school-wide behavioral interventions, and differing behavior support needs across schools. They used Messicks unified approach to validity by focusing on examples of evidence for empirical and ethical foundations of interpretations, uses, and social consequences of ODR measures at the school-wide level. The authors also discuss ongoing issues, study limitations, and related recommendations for interpretations and uses of ODR measures as school-wide indices, based on the existing literature.

Using Sixth-Grade School Records to Predict School Violence, Chronic Discipline Problems, and High School Outcomes

In this study, literature that indicates a need for systematic methods to identify students who are candidates for functional behavioral assessments and strength-based assessments is reviewed. These assessments will guide the development of individualized interventions to prevent violence, chronic discipline problems, and negative high school outcomes. Longitudinal research involving an archival review of a randomly selected sample of 526 students is reported. This research supports the use of school records of discipline referrals as a screening device. Referrals for violence involving fighting in Grade 6 predicted similar referrals in Grade 8. Frequency of discipline referrals in Grade 6 predicted chronic discipline problems in later middle school, which predicted frequency of suspensions in Grade 9. Three or more suspensions in ninth grade predicted school failure. Boys referred for fighting more than twice and girls referred even once for harassing, as sixth graders, were not likely to be on track for graduation when in high school.

Alternative Education Strategies Reducing Violence in School and the Community

Alternative education programs are expanding in the United States due to zero-tolerance policies, changes in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, increases in youth violence and school failure, and knowledge of the developmental trajectories leading to antisocial behavior. At the same time, there is little research evidence of the efficacy of these programs due to great diversity in approaches, populations served, and locations of the programs. In this article we provide a review of teaching strategies expected to be effective in alternative education programs for students who are at risk for school failure, dropout, delinquency, and violence. We discuss the need for alternative educational programs for students in both special and general education, describe research-based and recommended alternative education strategies, and offer suggestions for program development.

Schoolwide Social-Behavioral Climate, Student Problem Behavior, and Related Administrative Decisions: Empirical Patterns from 1,510 Schools Nationwide.

Office discipline referral (ODR) data provide useful information about problem behavior and consequence patterns, social-behavioral climates, and effects of social-behavioral interventions in schools. The authors report patterns of ODRs and subsequent administrative decisions from 1,510 schools nationwide that used the School-Wide Information System in 2005—2006. Sample demographics differed from key demographics for schools nationwide on school enrollment, socioeconomic status, and race and ethnicity. Descriptive analyses showed over 88% of elementary grade students with zero or one ODR for the academic year, 72% for middle schools, and 67% for high schools. ODRs were most likely to be generated from classrooms and more likely to be related to peer-directed problem behavior in elementary schools, student-adult interactions in middle schools, and tardiness and skipping in high schools. Major consequences were suspensions and detentions for middle and high school students and varied for elementary students. The discussion focuses on the utility of ODR databases and implications of the reported patterns.

The School Bully: Assessing the Problem, Developing Interventions, and Future Research Directions

A growing concern exists among educators regarding the prevalence and impact of bullying behavior in the public schools. This behavior has serious repercussions for school climate and school safety in general. In addition, strong indicators suggest bullying behavior appears to be a precursor for community violence. Studies indicate that educators are not fully aware of the prevalence or the seriousness of bullying behavior in schools. A need exists to assess systematically the extent to which bullying behavior may be present in a given school. The critical features of several bullying assessment instruments were examined. In response to the growing concern regarding bullying, a large number of programs designed to address bullying are emerging. However, it is recommended that before selecting a program three criteria should be considered: the program (a) is supported by research; (b) is based on sound behavioral principles; and (c) emphasizes teaching prosocial behavior to replace bullying behavior.

Toward a Conceptual Integration of Cultural Responsiveness and Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support

Within the context of widely documented racially disproportionate discipline outcomes, we describe schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS) as one approach that might provide a useful framework for culturally responsive behavior support delivery. We conceptualize cultural and linguistic diversity as the result of a divergence between individual students’ and entire schools’ cultural identities and identify culturally responsive educational practices that might facilitate greater continuity between students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and school environments. Based on practical recommendations derived from the literature, we propose an expansion of the key features of SWPBS implementation (practices, data, systems, and outcomes) to facilitate culturally responsive behavior support delivery. We propose (a) systemically promoting staff members’ cultural knowledge and self-awareness, (b) commitment to culturally relevant and validating student support practices, and (c) culturally valid decision making to enhance culturally equitable student outcomes. We provide recommendations for future research and present the efforts of one school district to blend SWPBS implementation with training in cultural responsiveness.

The Relationship between Implementation of School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) and Disciplinary Exclusion of Students from Various Ethnic Backgrounds with and without Disabilities.

This study examined disciplinary exclusion data from 77 schools implementing school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS). The authors examined (a) patterns of exclusion in schools implementing SWPBS; (b) associations between decreased exclusions and SWPBS implementation at the whole school level, the classroom level, the nonclassroom level, and the individual student level; (c) the extent to which students from varying ethnicities were equitably represented in overall exclusions as well as long-term exclusions; and (d) the extent to which students with a disability from varying ethnicities were equitably represented in long-term exclusions. Whereas SWPBS implementation in the classroom appeared to be associated with decreased exclusions in elementary schools, SWPBS implementation in nonclassroom settings appeared to be associated with decreased exclusions in high schools. Although overall exclusions decreased, White students appeared to benefit most from this decrease, whereas African American students remained overrepresented in exclusions, in particular long-term exclusions. Small sample sizes limited generalizability of outcomes.

Current Information on Dropout Prevention: Ideas From Practitioners and the Literature

Abstract Findings from a review of recent research on dropout prevention were sent to school administrators and other practitioners, who were invited to describe prevention programs they were using to increase the number of at-risk students who graduate from high school or receive an equivalent credential. Interventions described in the literature and recommended by practitioners included offering alternative types of service delivery, enhancing preparation for postschool employment, improving interpersonal relationships between school and family members and among individuals at school, increasing respect and consideration shown by school staff members to students, and individualizing positive and function-based support for students with behavior or attendance problems. Suggestions for developing action plans based on the information gathered are given.

Disciplinary Referrals for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with and without Disabilities: Patterns Resulting from School-Wide Positive Behavior Support

The goal of our study was to examine if school-wide positive behavior support implementation was associated with reductions in the discipline gap. We provided outcomes from descriptive and preliminary statistical analyses of three years of office discipline referral data from elementary schools engaged in school-wide positive behavior support implementation and not engaged in school-wide positive behavior support implementation. The percent of students enrolled was compared to the percent of students with office discipline referrals within each racial-ethnic category. The percent of students with office discipline referrals and individualized education plans was compared across racial-ethnic categories. Outcomes indicated that the discipline gap was present in schools engaged in school-wide positive behavior support implementation as well as schools not engaged in implementation with African American students over-represented among students with office discipline referrals. In schools engaged in school-wide positive behavior support, the gap was statistically significantly smaller than in schools not involved in school-wide positive behavior support implementation. Suggestions for future research in culturally responsive school-wide positive behavior support implementation were offered.

A Reexamination of the Psychometric Properties of the School-Wide Evaluation Tool (SET)

As a follow-up to Horner et al., this study focuses on the internal consistency and validity of the School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET) at all school levels. Analyzing SET data from 833 elementary, 264 middle, and 93 high schools, the authors focused on (a) describing commonalities and differences in SET data across the school levels, (b) assessing the SETs internal consistency at all school levels, and (c) examining the SETs validity as the extent to which SET scores collected by external observers correlated with Team Implementation Checklist (TIC) scores reflecting internal self-assessments. Results indicated that overall, the SET performs best in elementary schools, shows less cohesion in middle and high schools, and highly correlates with TIC scores. Based on these results, the authors formulated a number of recommendations to improve the utility of SET data for research and implementation decisions across school levels and implementation phases.