Tatjana Schnell

The Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe): Relations to demographics and well-being

Shortfalls of widely used measures of meaning in life are described. Their use results in biased correlations and restriction of the complexity inherent in experiences of meaning. To qualify results, the Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe) is employed. It offers separate scales to measure a positive and a negative dimension of meaning: meaningfulness–a fundamental sense of meaning and belonging, and crisis of meaning–the evaluation of life as frustratingly empty and lacking meaning. Both intercorrelate moderately (−.38/−.35). Additionally, the SoMe assesses 26 sources of meaning. Based on a representative sample, relationships between meaningfulness, crisis of meaning, and sources of meaning with demographics are reported (Study 1). In Study 2, SoMe scales are correlated with positive (mood, satisfaction with life) and negative (neuroticism, anxiety, depression) indicators of well-being. SEM reveals that meaningfulness predicts positive well-being, but is not predictive of negative well-being. Crisis of meaning is a strong predictor for both positive and negative well-being.

Existential Indifference: Another Quality of Meaning in Life

Existential indifference is characterized by a state of low meaningfulness that is not associated with a crisis of meaning. In the existentialist tradition, this condition has been generally acknowledged, but quantitative measurement has not been available. By using and combining both the meaningfulness and crisis of meaning scale of the SoMe, the existentially indifferent can be identified empirically. According to data from a representative sample (Study I, N = 603), existential indifference slightly decreases with age and is especially common among singles and unmarried partners. The existentially indifferent show low commitment to all sources of meaning; they demonstrate particular disinterest in self-knowledge, spirituality, explicit religiosity, and generativity. Whereas their mental health (depression, anxiety) is comparable to that of individuals who experience their lives as meaningful, their psychological well-being (positive affect, satisfaction with life) is considerably lower (Study II, N = 135).

Predicting meaning in work: Theory, data, implications

Literature on meaning in work indicates that a sense of meaning in work is inherently subjective, but impacted by different contexts. In the present paper, these contexts are operationalized by three inter-related levels: individual, work tasks, and organizational. Meaning in work is conceptualized in line with findings from an extensive research program exploring meaning in life. Analogously to meaning in life, meaning in work is defined as a sense of coherence, direction, significance, and belonging in the working life. Against this background, meaning in work and potential predictors have been measured and tested. A survey of employees from a broad variety of professions (N = 206) was conducted. As indicated by hierarchical multiple regression analysis, work-role fit, the significance of work tasks, socio-moral climate, and organizational self-transcendent orientation contribute positively to the prediction of meaning in work. Overall, the predictors account for 46% of the variance in meaning in work.

Meaning-Making in an Atheist World

This article explores atheist meaning-making by employing a multidimensional model of meaning operationalized by the Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe). When compared to a representative sample of “religionists” (N = 390) and “nones” (N = 178), atheists (N = 102) show lower degrees of meaningfulness, but they do not suffer from crises of meaning more frequently. However, subsequent cluster analysis reveals that heterogeneity within atheism has to be taken into account. Three types of atheists are identified. ‘Low-commitment’ atheists are characterised by generally low commitment; they report very low meaningfulness and a high frequency of crises of meaning. ‘Broad-commitment’ atheists exhibit considerably higher levels of meaningfulness and rare crises of meaning. They evidence, in particular, high scores on the dimension of well-being and relatedness. The third type, primarily committed to “selfactualization,” exhibits moderate levels of meaningfulness, with crises of meaning being literally absent. Common to most atheists is a particular commitment to self-knowledge, freedom, knowledge, individualism, and comfort. In comparing male and female atheists, gendered patterns of commitment are discovered.

Meaningful Commitment: Finding Meaning in Volunteer Work.

This study tests the hypothesis that volunteer work is associated with various aspects of meaning making by employing a multi-dimensional model of meaning operationalized by the Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe). An empirical study comparing 168 volunteers with a representative sample of the general population (N = 603) shows that generativity and social commitment are more prominent among volunteers, as are – among others – self-knowledge and development. Volunteers also experience higher degrees of meaningfulness. Existential indifference is considerably less frequent among volunteers than in the general population. Moreover, characteristic sources of meaning differ between volunteers working in church, hospices, and secular contexts. Satisfaction with volunteering moderately correlates with the general experience of life as meaningful; meaningfulness is particularly low when less than two hours per week are committed to volunteering, and when the duration of volunteering is less than one year.

Spirituality with and without Religion—Differential Relationships with Personality

This study contributes to the exploration of self-rated spirituality by anchoring self-ratings of spirituality and religiosity in an integrative model of personality. For the measurement of personality dispositions and characteristic adaptations, the NEO Personality Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R, German version) and the Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe) have been administered to a sample (N = 135) of German-speaking students. A three-step study design is employed. First, previous findings on associations between personality and religiosity/spirituality are replicated and supplemented. Second, sources of meaning are shown to explain a considerably higher amount of unique variance in religiosity and spirituality than do personality dispositions. Third, two types of spirituality—religious-and-spiritual and spiritual-but-not-religious—are identified and distinguished on the basis of personality traits. The spiritual-but-not-religious type shows significantly higher degrees of Neuroticism, and lower degrees of Agreeableness. Possible interpretations and lines of future research on ‘spirituality without religion’ are sketched out.

Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe): Psychometric Properties and Sociodemographic Findings in a Large Brazilian Sample

This study presents the psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe-BR). Participants were 3.034 subjects (63.9% women), ranging in age from 18 to 91 years. Reliability analysis, parallel analysis (PA), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were employed to evaluate the structure and reliability of the SoMe-BR. Through PA and ESEM, a five-dimension structure for the 26 sources of meaning was achieved. CFAs supported meaningfulness and crisis of meaning as two distinct constructs. Convergent validity within the SoMe-BR and between the SoMe-BR and other scales were also achieved. Regarding the SoMe scores and sociodemographic variables, significant main effects were found for gender, age groups and marital status. Our results corroborate the international literature, which claims in favor of the SoMe as a reliable measure to evaluate meaning in life contents in different cultural contexts.

Pilgrimage today: the meaning-making potential of ritual

Pilgrimage on the Road to Santiago is flourishing, even in late modern times characterised by detraditionalisation, individualism and pluralism. A large number of these pilgrims is either not explicitly religious at all, or only moderately religious. Why, then, do they submit to this ancient Christian ritual, and what are the psychological consequences? After a short introduction to the study of implicit religiosity and different perspectives on rituals from the past to today, current research on pilgrimage is reviewed and pilgrimage to Santiago is analysed as a personal ritual from a perspective of implicit religiosity. In the psychological theory of implicit religiosity, rituals are identified as one of three universal religious structures (along with myths and experiences of transcending) with strong meaning-making potential. Personal rituals are defined as formalised patterns of action, pointing beyond the actual event to a particular meaning imbued by the actor. Data from 85 pilgrims on the Road to Santiago are presented. Motives for peregrination, base-line sources of meaning, experienced meaningfulness and crises of meaning are reported, as well as changes in sources of meaning, meaningfulness and crises of meaning immediately after the pilgrimage and four months later. The majority of pilgrims (about two third) is motivated by a “need for clarification.” Multidimensional scaling shows that pilgrims either travel for explicitly religious reasons (conviction) or in search of clarification (quest); they either draw motivation from vertical transcendence (religiosity or spirituality) or from apparently purely secular reasons, such as athletic challenge. Religious and spiritual motives are mostly reported by highly religious individuals. A need for clarification is primarily stated by individuals who suffer from a crisis of meaning. Crises of meaning are significantly more frequent among pilgrims before the journey than in the general population. For the entire sample of pilgrims, the meaning-making potential of pilgrimage is supported by the data. Directly after the journey, as well as four months later, pilgrims experience life as significantly more meaningful, and crises of meaning are overcome. Pilgrims also report a strengthened commitment to vertical selftranscendence, horizontal selftranscendence and selfactualisation. These changes occur independently of the motivation for pilgrimage.

Dimensions of Secularity (DoS): An Open Inventory to Measure Facets of Secular Identities

Beliefs about the world affect experiences and behavior. Although much is known about beliefs pertaining to religion, or the supernatural, secular identifies have, to date, remained largely neglected. To allow for dimensional assessment of different aspects of secular identities, the Dimensions of Secularity (DoS) inventory has been developed. It measures degrees of atheism, agnosticism and several philosophic orientations (scientism, personal responsibility, humanism). As an “open” inventory, these constructs are not seen as comprehensive, and researchers are encouraged to add further scales. The DoS shows good reliabilities and a clear factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis confirms the theoretically proposed model. Correlation patterns with discriminant measures (religious belonging, belief, spirituality, numinous experiences) support the instruments discriminant validity. Associations with sources of meaning contribute to construct validity. Demographic relationships are reported and discussed.

Crisis of Meaning Predicts Suicidality in Youth Independently of Depression

Background: At times, the question for meaning comes to nothing and a crisis of meaning ensues. This state is very painful, but difficult to account. Both those who suffer from it and care professionals find themselves at a loss for words. Aims: This study introduces an operationalization of a crisis of meaning. It aims to distinguish the concept from depression, and to investigate whether a crisis of meaning can explain suicidality beyond the known protective and risk factors self-esteem, family functioning, life-event load, and depression. Method: Final-year school pupils in Ecuador (N = 300) completed questionnaires assessing the above variables. Data were analyzed using chi-square, hierarchic multiple regression, serial mediation, and moderator analyses. Results: Crisis of meaning was distinguished from depression. It explained a significant amount of variance in suicidality beyond the mentioned protective and risk factors. For males, crisis of meaning was the only significant risk factor, and the strongest predictor overall. The acute risk factors depression and crisis of meaning mediated the effects of the baseline factors self-esteem, family functioning, and life-event load on suicidality. Limitations: The study was cross-sectional; assessed factors predicted variance in suicidal thoughts, plans, and past suicide attempts, while their relevance cannot be generalized to actual future suicide attempts. Conclusion: A crisis of meaning is an important factor to take into account in further research on the prevention and treatment of people at risk of suicide.