Terry C. Lansdown

Distraction from multiple in-vehicle secondary tasks: vehicle performance and mental workload implications

This study investigates the impact of multiple in-vehicle information systems on the driver. It was undertaken using a high fidelity driving simulator. The participants experienced, paced and unpaced single tasks, multiple secondary tasks and an equal period of ‘normal’ driving. Results indicate that the interaction with secondary tasks led to significant compensatory speed reductions. Multiple secondary tasks were shown to have a detrimental affect on vehicle performance with significantly reduced headways and increased brake pressure being found. The drivers reported interaction with the multiple in-vehicle systems to significantly impose more subjective mental workload than either a single secondary task or ‘normal driving’. The implications of these findings and the need to integrate and manage complex in-vehicle information systems are discussed.

Individual differences during driver secondary task performance: verbal protocol and visual allocation findings.

This paper reports a study in which visual allocation and verbal reports were recorded to determine individual differences in drivers conducting in-vehicle tasks. Participants drove a simulated route whilst conducting pre-defined tasks using the in-vehicle entertainment system. Tasks of varying complexity were presented to the participants. Licensed (experienced) drivers made significantly more verbal reports relating to road signs and markings, vehicles, scenery in general and vehicle operations; than did unlicensed (novices). No significant difference was found between expert and novice drivers when reporting in-car entertainment system related utterances. Surprising gender differences were also found. Males drove faster, with greater variance, and made more utterances in identified categories. Females were found to make significantly less verbal reports during secondary task performance. The difference in results obtained between expert and novices may imply that novices need to use their attention capacity to focus on the skill of driving, whereas experts through experience, have automated this skill and can use their attention capacity to more effectively during primary tasks. Results suggest that expert drivers are not necessarily experts at undertaking secondary tasks.

Couples, contentious conversations, mobile telephone use and driving

Studies have shown that the inappropriate use of in-vehicle technology may lead to hazardous disruption of driver performance. This paper reports an investigation into the socio-technical implications of maintaining a difficult conversation while driving. Twenty romantically involved couples participated in a driving-simulator experiment. The participants engaged in emotionally difficult conversations while one partner drove. The contentious conversation topics were identified using a revealed differences protocol, requiring partners to discuss sources of ongoing disagreement in their relationship. The conversations were conducted either using handsfree telephone or with both parties present in the simulator. Results indicate that the revealed differences tasks were subjectively viewed as emotionally more difficult than a control. Driver performance was found to be adversely effected for both longitudinal and lateral vehicle control. Performance was worst during contentious conversations with the partner present, suggesting the drivers may be better able to regulate driving task demands with the partner not in the vehicle during difficult discussions.

Multiple driver distractions: A systemic transport problem

Strategies to contend with driver distraction may no longer be sufficient for the emerging variety of contemporary driver distractions. A more systematic and systemic approach holds promise for improved road safety but is not currently being developed. This systematic review of multiple driver distractions aims to address this gap and presents two key findings. Systematic classification of distracting tasks with respect to driving is challenging, and engagement with Multiple-Additional-to-Driving (MAD) tasks is almost universally detrimental to driving performance. A model is presented to assist in systematically characterising multiple driver demands. Identified literature is placed into context using the model and shortfalls are identified.

Primary Task Disruption from Multiple In-Vehicle Systems

In-vehicle systems may distract or interrupt the driver and can compete with the primary task of safe vehicle control. This study investigates the consequences arising from multiple in-vehicle distractions. It aims to investigate the impact of simultaneous information conflicts, from multiple secondary in-vehicle tasks, on the primary task of driving. Participants were presented with a primary task, representing some of the visual and manual aspects of driving, and three secondary tasks (visual, auditory, and visual and auditory stimuli), representing some of the aspects of in-vehicle system operation. Differences between the impact of the three secondary tasks on performance in the primary task were investigated. The priority (high/low) that participants applied to the task was also considered. Lane exceedence (vehicle out of lane) and lane deviation (tracking error) were found to increase with the introduction of secondary tasks. Overall mental workload and anger and frustration were reported as being higher when conducting both primary and secondary tasks, as opposed to solely a primary task. Differences between the impact of the three secondary tasks on these factors were not observed. Findings suggest that in situations of information conflict, participants experience equal task disruption regardless of the sensory channel of the secondary task if the quantity of information presented is carefully controlled. Resource theories would suggest that overloading the visual channel would result in performance decrements. Findings from this study do not support this view.

Driver visual allocation and the introduction of intelligent transport systems

Abstract The introduction of intelligent transport systems may affect the drivers ability safely to control the vehicle by distracting him/her from the roadway. These systems must therefore be evaluated to ascertain whether they impose an unreasonable demand on the driver. This paper discusses issues surrounding the use of visual allocation measures for the evaluation of driver information systems in a road trail setting. It explores their value in differentiating between different levels of imposed visual demand. An investigation was made of the visual demand and subjective mental workload resulting from the use of a congestion warning device, an in-car entertainment system and driving without these (the control). The results of the study suggest that the congestion warning device imposed significantly greater visual demand and subjective mental workload than either the in-car entertainment system or the control condition. Difficulties in comparing empirical data with other reported work are highlighted.

The Essential Elements of a Risk Governance Framework for Current and Future Nanotechnologies

Societies worldwide are investing considerable resources into the safe development and use of nanomaterials. Although each of these protective efforts is crucial for governing the risks of nanomaterials, they are insufficient in isolation. What is missing is a more integrative governance approach that goes beyond legislation. Development of this approach must be evidence based and involve key stakeholders to ensure acceptance by end users. The challenge is to develop a framework that coordinates the variety of actors involved in nanotechnology and civil society to facilitate consideration of the complex issues that occur in this rapidly evolving research and development area. Here, we propose three sets of essential elements required to generate an effective risk governance framework for nanomaterials. (1) Advanced tools to facilitate risk-based decision making, including an assessment of the needs of users regarding risk assessment, mitigation, and transfer. (2) An integrated model of predicted human behavior and decision making concerning nanomaterial risks. (3) Legal and other (nano-specific and general) regulatory requirements to ensure compliance and to stimulate proactive approaches to safety. The implementation of such an approach should facilitate and motivate good practice for the various stakeholders to allow the safe and sustainable future development of nanotechnology.

Using ‘Stage of Change’ and ‘Business Activity Models’ to Assess and Improve Health and Safety Behaviours in SMEs

Abstract This paper reports on a UK study aimed at investigating the engagement of small and medium-sized enterprises with health and safety activity at all stages of their business processes. The study was based on telephone interviews with 50 small and medium-sized enterprises, and the findings indicate that their overall level of health and safety activity is low compared to larger enterprises. Further consideration of the data reveals two cohorts: one well engaged with health and safety activity and the other largely unaware of its obligations and poorly engaged. The health and safety of these heterogeneous organisations was explored using frameworks that addressed generic business practices and readiness to engage in health and safety-related activity. The frameworks proved valuable in eliciting responses. However, several methodological areas for refinement were apparent. The prevalence of a policy statement in these businesses was identified as a frequent and central feature that could be used to develop positive health and safety practice.

Driver Preferences for Speech Based Interaction with in-Vehicle Systems

Twenty three drivers were interviewed with respect to their opinions about communicating with in-vehicle systems by speech. Participants were asked which in-vehicle systems they would like to be able to control by voice, the dialogue they would like to use to instruct such systems, and how they would like it to respond. They were read a scenario which asked them to imagine they were communicating with more complex systems. Finally, the interviews allowed participants to reflect on the concept of communicating with in-vehicle systems by voice. Participants felt that the in-car entertainment system would benefit most from voice control followed by the heating and ventilation system, lighting and in-car telephone. Factors influencing this choice included familiarity with the features, their frequency of use and acceptability of current manual controls. Of the commands suggested in Part One and Part Two, 93% were terse, curt explicit imperatives. In Part One 89% of the terse commands contained less than four words, while the majority (53%) contained two. Analysis of terse commands in indicated that commands could consist of four different components: functions, settings, actions and directional statements. 39% of terse commands contained a function and a setting, 16% contained a function and a directional statement and 13% contained only a setting. The availability of user syntax preferences in the design of in-vehicle speech interfaces is discussed.

Group size and personalization’s effect on Facebook message response rates

Purpose The bystander effect is one of the most well researched and replicated phenomena in social psychology. It repeatedly shows that the presence of other people inhibits the impulse to help due to the concept of diffusion of responsibility. Recently, researchers have studied this phenomenon online in the context of e-mails, internet chat rooms, and discussion forums. The results provide evidence that the presence of “virtual” others decreases the likelihood of helping behavior. Personalization is another factor that strongly influences helping behavior. Referring to a person by name when soliciting help request increases the likelihood of receiving assistance. Yet, with the most popular activity on the internet now being social media, it would be beneficial to know if diffusion of responsibility and personalization also occurs in this part of the online world. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach To investigate the validity of diffusion of responsibility as well as personalization in a social media context, 176 participants sent out one private Facebook message soliciting help in the form of an online survey to one, three, six, or nine of their Facebook friends. They greeted their friend(s) by name or just said “Hi” or “Hi all.” Findings Responses to the survey provided strong support for personalizing the greeting, but did not support the theory of diffusion of responsibility. Practical implications This study has many practical implications. For one, with social media being used not only by individuals but by businesses and industries, it is important to know the most effective way in eliciting help and responses from individuals. It is also beneficial for researchers as well who are increasingly using social media as a recruitment tool to find participants. This study suggests that personalizing salutations is an effective way of eliciting more responses and raises important research questions about the validity of diffusion of responsibility in online environments. Originality/value This study also has originality and value in that it provides a start for understanding helping behavior in a social media environment as well as applying relevant social psychological theories to online behavior. It highlights the similarities as well as differences between offline and online human behavior as well as highlights the importance of personalization in online requests.