Teruhiro Takabe

Effects of hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide on both salt and heat stress tolerance in rice

Abstract Higher plants growing in natural environments experience various abiotic stresses. H2O2 and nitric oxide (NO) free radicals are produced and cause oxidative damage to plants under various abiotic stress conditions. However, in the present study, we found that pretreating rice seedlings with low levels (

Overexpression of a Na+/H+ antiporter confers salt tolerance on a freshwater cyanobacterium, making it capable of growth in sea water

The salt tolerance of a freshwater cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942, transformed with genes involved in the synthesis of a Na+/H+ antiporter, betaine, catalase, and a chaperone was examined. Compared with the expression of betaine, catalase, and the chaperone, the expression of the Na+/H+ antiporter gene from a halotolerant cyanobacterium (ApNhaP) drastically improved the salt tolerance of the freshwater cyanobacterium. The Synechococcus cells expressing ApNhaP could grow in BG11 medium containing 0.5 M NaCl as well as in sea water, whereas those expressing betaine, catalase, and the chaperone could not grow under those conditions. The coexpression of ApNhaP with catalase or ApNhaP with catalase and betaine did not further enhance the salt tolerance of Synechococcus cells expressing ApNhaP alone when grown in BG11 medium containing 0.5 M NaCl. Interestingly, the coexpression of ApNhaP with catalase resulted in enhanced salt tolerance of cells grown in sea water. These results demonstrate a key role of sodium ion exclusion by the Na+/H+ antiporter for the salt tolerance of photosynhetic organisms.

Molecular cloning and functional characterization of two kinds of betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase in betaine-accumulating mangrove Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.

Glycinebetaine is an important osmoprotectant in bacteria, plants, and animals, but only little information is available on the synthesis of glycinebetaine in tree plants. Among four mangrove species, glycinebetaine could be detected only in Avicennia marina. Pinitol was the main osmoprotectant in the other three species. The level of glycinebetaine in A. marina increased under high salinity. Betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) was detected in all four species, but choline monooxygenase could not be detected. A cDNA library was constructed from the leaves of A. marina. Two kinds of BADH cDNAs were isolated, one homologous to the spinach chloroplast BADH, and the other with unique residues SKL at the end of C-terminus. The BADH transcription levels of the former were higher than those of the latter. The levels of the former BADH increased at high salinity whereas those of the latter were independent of salinity. BADHs were expressed in Escherichia coli and purified. Two kinds of A. marina BADHs exhibited similar kinetic and stability properties, but were significantly different from those of spinach BADH. A. marina BADHs efficiently catalyzed the oxidation of betainealdehyde, but not the oxidation of ω-aminoaldehydes and were more stable at high temperature than the spinach BADH.

Isolation and functional characterization of N-methyltransferases that catalyze betaine synthesis from glycine in a halotolerant photosynthetic organism Aphanothece halophytica.

Glycine betaine (N,N,N-trimethylglycine) is an important osmoprotectant and is synthesized in response to abiotic stresses. Although almost all known biosynthetic pathways of betaine are two-step oxidation of choline, here we isolated twoN-methyltransferase genes from a halotolerant cyanobacterium Aphanothece halophytica. One of gene products (ORF1) catalyzed the methylation reactions of glycine and sarcosine with S-adenosylmethionine acting as the methyl donor. The other one (ORF2) specifically catalyzed the methylation of dimethylglycine to betaine. Both enzymes are active as monomers. Betaine, a final product, did not show the feed back inhibition for the methyltransferases even in the presence of 2 m. A reaction product, S-adenosyl homocysteine, inhibited the methylation reactions with relatively low affinities. The co-expressing of two enzymes in Escherichia coli increased the betaine level and enhanced the growth rates. Immunoblot analysis revealed that the accumulation levels of both enzymes in A. halophytica cells increased with increasing the salinity. These results indicate thatA. halophytica cells synthesize betaine from glycine by a three-step methylation. The changes of amino acids Arg-169 to Lys or Glu in ORF1 and Pro-171 to Gln and/or Met-172 to Arg in ORF2 significantly decreased V max and increasedK m for methyl acceptors (glycine, sarcosine, and dimethylglycine) but modestly affected K m forS-adenosylmethionine, indicating the importance of these amino acids for the binding of methyl acceptors. Physiological and functional properties of methyltransferases were discussed.

Functional Characterization of Choline Monooxygenase, an Enzyme for Betaine Synthesis in Plants

In plants, the first step in betaine synthesis was shown to be catalyzed by a novel Rieske-type iron-sulfur enzyme, choline monooxygenase (CMO). Although CMO so far has been found only in Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae, the recent genome sequence suggests the presence of a CMO-like gene in Arabidopsis, a betaine non-accumulating plant. Here, we examined the functional properties of CMO expressed in Escherichia coli, cyanobacterium, andArabidopsis thaliana. We found that E. colicells in which choline dehydrogenase (CDH) was replaced with spinach CMO accumulate betaine and complement the salt-sensitive phenotype of the CDH-deleted E. coli mutant. Changes of Cys-181 in spinach CMO to Ser, Thr, and Ala and His-287 to Gly, Val, and Ala abolished the accumulation of betaine. The ArabidopsisCMO-like gene was transcribed in Arabidopsis, but its protein was not detected. When the Arabidopsis CMO-like gene was expressed in E. coli, the protein was detected but was found not to promote betaine sysnthesis. Overexpression of spinach CMO in E. coli, Synechococcus sp. PCC7942, andArabidopsis conferred resistance to abiotic stress. These facts clearly indicate that CMO, but not the CMO-like protein, could oxidize choline and that Cys-181 and His-287 are involved in the binding of Fe-S cluster and Fe, respectively.

Potassium/Proton Antiport System of Escherichia coli

The intracellular level of potassium (K+) in Escherichia coli is regulated through multiple K+ transport systems. Recent data indicate that not all K+ extrusion system(s) have been identified (15). Here we report that the E. coli Na+ (Ca2+)/H+ antiporter ChaA functions as a K+ extrusion system. Cells expressing ChaA mediated K+ efflux against a K+ concentration gradient. E. coli strains lacking the chaA gene were unable to extrude K+ under conditions in which wild-type cells extruded K+. The K+/H+ antiporter activity of ChaA was detected by using inverted membrane vesicles produced using a French press. Physiological growth studies indicated that E. coli uses ChaA to discard excessive K+, which is toxic for these cells. These results suggest that ChaA K+/H+ antiporter activity enables E. coli to adapt to K+ salinity stress and to maintain K+ homeostasis.

Metabolic engineering for betaine accumulation in microbes and plants.

Plants accumulate a variety of osmoprotectants that improve their ability to combat abiotic stresses. Among them, betaine appears to play an important role in conferring resistance to stresses. Betaine is synthesized via either choline oxidation or glycine methylation. An increased betaine level in transgenic plants is one of the potential strategies to generate stress-tolerant crop plants. Here, we showed that an exogenous supply of serine or glycine to a halotolerant cyanobacterium Aphanothece halophytica, which synthesizes betaine from glycine by a three-step methylation, elevated intracellular accumulation of betaine under salt stress. The gene encoding 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PGDH), which catalyzes the first step of the phosphorylated pathway of serine biosynthesis, was isolated from A. halophytica. Expression of the Aphanothece PGDH gene in Escherichia coli caused an increase in levels of betaine as well as glycine and serine. Expression of the Aphanothece PGDH gene in Arabidopsis plants, in which the betaine synthetic pathway was introduced via glycine methylation, further increased betaine levels and improved the stress tolerance. These results demonstrate that PGDH enhances the levels of betaine by providing the precursor serine for both choline oxidation and glycine methylation pathways.

Halotolerant cyanobacterium Aphanothece halophytica contains a betaine transporter active at alkaline pH and high salinity.

ABSTRACT Aphanothece halophytica is a halotolerant alkaliphilic cyanobacterium which can grow in media of up to 3.0 M NaCl and pH 11. This cyanobacterium can synthesize betaine from glycine by three-step methylation using S-adenosylmethionine as a methyl donor. To unveil the mechanism of betaine uptake and efflux in this alkaliphile, we isolated and characterized a betaine transporter. A gene encoding a protein (BetTA. halophytica) that belongs to the betaine-choline-carnitine transporter (BCCT) family was isolated. Although the predicted isoelectric pH of a typical BCCT family transporter, OpuD of Bacillus subtilis, is basic, 9.54, that of BetTA. halophytica is acidic, 4.58. BetTA. halophytica specifically catalyzed the transport of betaine. Choline, γ-aminobutyric acid, betaine aldehyde, sarcosine, dimethylglycine, and amino acids such as proline did not compete for the uptake of betaine by BetTA. halophytica. Sodium markedly enhanced betaine uptake rates, whereas potassium and other cations showed no effect, suggesting that BetTA. halophytica is a Na+-betaine symporter. Betaine uptake activities of BetTA. halophytica were high at alkaline pH values, with the optimum pH around 9.0. Freshwater Synechococcus cells overexpressing BetTA. halophytica showed NaCl-activated betaine uptake activities with enhanced salt tolerance, allowing growth in seawater supplemented with betaine. Kinetic properties of betaine uptake in Synechococcus cells overexpressing BetTA. halophytica were similar to those in A. halophytica cells. These findings indicate that A. halophytica contains a Na+-betaine symporter that contributes to the salt stress tolerance at alkaline pH. BetTA. halophytica is the first identified transporter for compatible solutes in cyanobacteria.

Enrichment of sugar content in melon fruits by hydrogen peroxide treatment.

Since sweetness is one of the most important qualities of many fruits, and since sugars are translocated from leaves to fruits, the present study investigates photosynthetic activity, activity of sugar metabolizing enzymes, sugar content in leaves and fruits and endogenous levels of hydrogen peroxide in leaves of melon plants treated with various dilutions of hydrogen peroxide, a nonspecific signaling molecule in abiotic stress. For this purpose, 4-month-old melon plants were treated with various concentrations (<50mM) of hydrogen peroxide by applying 300 mL per day to the soil of potted plants. The treatments resulted in increased fructose, glucose, sucrose and starch in the leaves and fruits. The most effective concentration of hydrogen peroxide was 20mM. During the day, soluble sugars in leaves were highest at 12:00 h and starch at 15:00 h. Furthermore, the peroxide treatment increased the photosynthetic activity and the activities of chloroplastic and cytosolic fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sucrose phosphate synthase and invertases. Thus, our data show that exogenous hydrogen peroxide, applied to the soil, can increase the soluble sugar content of melon fruits.

Regulation of betaine synthesis by precursor supply and choline monooxygenase expression in Amaranthus tricolor

In plants, betaine is synthesized upon abiotic stress via choline oxidation, in which choline monooxygenase (CMO) is a key enzyme. Although it had been thought that betaine synthesis is well regulated to protect abiotic stress, it is shown here that an exogenous supply of precursors such as choline, serine, and glycine in the betaine-accumulating plant Amaranthus tricolor further enhances the accumulation of betaine under salt stress, but not under normal conditions. Addition of isonicotinic acid hydrazide, an inhibitor of glycine decarboxylase, inhibited the salinity-induced accumulation of betaine. Salt-induced accumulation of A. tricolor CMO (AmCMO) and betaine was much slower in roots than in leaves, and a transient accumulation of proline was observed in the roots. Antisense expression of AmCMO mRNA suppressed the salt-induced accumulation of AmCMO and betaine, but increased the level of choline approximately 2- 3-fold. This indicates that betaine synthesis is highly regulated by AmCMO expression. The genomic DNA, including the upstream region (1.6 kbp), of AmCMO was isolated. Deletion analysis of the AmCMO promoter region revealed that the 410 bp fragment upstream of the translation start codon contains the sequence responsive to salt stress. These data reveal that the promoter sequence of CMO, in addition to precursor supply, is important for the accumulation of betaine in the betaine-accumulating plant A. tricolor.