Theresa S. Chen

The Effect of Aging on Glutathione and Cysteine Levels in Different Regions of the Mouse Brain

Abstract A general glutathione (GSH) deficiency occurs in many tissues of the aging mouse. However, there is no information on GSH in the aging brain even though it has been involved in a number of neurobiologic reactions. To this end, C57BL/6 mice, 3–31 months old, representing the growth, maturation, and aging periods of the life-span were studied. Brain cortex, hippocampus, and stem samples were dissected, processed, and analyzed specifically for reduced and oxidized glutathione (GSH, GSSG) and cyst(e)ine using high performance liquid chromatography with dual electrochemical detection. The GSH content of each brain region varied in the order brain cortex > brain hippocampus > brainstem. However, the GSH profiles of all regions were the same through the life-span, namely, high values during growth dropping to a maturation plateau and then decreasing 30% during aging. In contrast to GSH, the order of cysteine levels was brain cortex < brain hippocampus < brainstem and no life-span changes occurred in any region. In addition, the brain GSSG and cystine contents of all regions were very low and did not change during the life-span. Thus, the GSH loss was not accountable by oxidation to GSSG or degradation to cyst(e)ine. Altogether these results demonstrated a GSH deficiency in brain tissues of aging mice like that found previously in other tissues. These findings suggest an increased susceptibility of the aging brain to oxidative damage.

Inhibition of Adiponectin Production by Homocysteine : A Potential Mechanism for Alcoholic Liver Disease

Although recent evidence suggests that down‐regulation of production of the adipocyte hormone adiponectin has pathophysiological consequences for the development of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), the underlying mechanisms are elusive. Abnormal hepatic methionine‐homocysteine metabolism induced by prolonged alcohol exposure has been reported both in clinical and experimental studies of ALD. Here, we conducted both in vivo and in vitro experiments to examine the effects of prolonged alcohol exposure on homocysteine levels in adipose tissue, its potential involvement in regulating adiponectin production, and the consequences for ALD. Chronic alcohol exposure decreased the circulating adiponectin concentration and adiponectin messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels in epididymal fat pads. Alcohol feeding induced modest hyperhomocysteinemia and increased homocysteine levels in the epididymal fat pad, which was associated with decreased mRNA levels of cystationine β‐synthase. Betaine supplementation (1.5%, wt/vol) in the alcohol‐fed mice reduced homocysteine accumulation in adipose tissue and improved adiponectin levels. Moreover, exogenous homocysteine administration reduced gene expression, protein levels, and secretion of adiponectin in primary adipocytes. Furthermore, rats fed a high‐methionine diet (2%, wt/wt) were hyperhomocysteinemic and had decreased adiponectin levels in both plasma and adipose tissue, which was associated with suppressed AMP‐activated protein kinase activation in the liver. Mechanistic studies revealed that both inactivation of the extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 pathway and induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress response, specifically C/EBP homologous protein expression, may contribute to the inhibitory effect exerted by homocysteine. Conclusion: Chronic alcohol feeding caused abnormal accumulation of homocysteine in adipocytes, which contributes to decreased adiponectin production in ALD. (HEPATOLOGY 2008.)

S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) protects against acute alcohol induced hepatotoxicity in mice☆ ☆

Although S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) has beneficial effects in many hepatic disorders, the effects of SAMe on acute alcohol-induced liver injury are unknown. In the present study, we investigated effects of SAMe on liver injury in mice induced by acute alcohol administration. Male C57BL/6 mice received ethanol (5 g/kg BW) by gavage every 12 hrs for a total of 3 doses. SAMe (5 mg/kg BW) was administrated i.p. once a day for three days before ethanol administration. Subsequent serum ALT level, hepatic lipid peroxidation, enzymatic activity of CYP2E1 and hepatic mitochondrial glutathione levels were measured colorimetrically. Intracellular SAMe concentration was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Histopathological changes were assessed by H&E staining. Our results showed that acute ethanol administration caused prominent microvesicular steatosis with mild necrosis and an elevation of serum ALT activity. SAMe treatment significantly attenuated the liver injury. In association with the hepatocyte injury, acute alcohol administration induced significant decreases in both hepatic SAMe and mitochondrial GSH levels along with enhanced lipid peroxidation. SAMe treatment attenuated hepatic SAMe and mitochondrial GSH depletion and lipid peroxidation following acute alcohol exposure. These results demonstrate that SAMe protects against the liver injury and attenuates the mitochondrial GSH depletion caused by acute alcohol administration. SAMe may prove to be an effective therapeutic agent in many toxin-induced liver injuries including those induced by alcohol.

S-adenosylhomocysteine sensitizes to TNF-α hepatotoxicity in mice and liver cells: A possible etiological factor in alcoholic liver disease

In alcoholic liver disease, tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNFα) is a critical effector molecule, and abnormal methionine metabolism is a fundamental acquired metabolic abnormality. Although hepatocytes are resistant to TNFα‐induced killing under normal circumstances, previous studies have shown that primary hepatocytes from rats chronically fed alcohol have increased TNFα cytotoxicity. Therefore, there must be mechanisms by which chronic alcohol exposure “sensitizes” to TNFα hepatotoxicity. S‐adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) is product of methionine in transsulfuration pathway and a potent competitive inhibitor of most methyltransferases. In this study, we investigated the effects of increased SAH levels on TNFα hepatotoxicity. Our results demonstrated that chronic alcohol consumption in mice not only decreased hepatic S‐adenosylmethionine levels but also increased hepatic SAH levels, which resulted in a significantly decreased S‐adenosylmethionine‐to‐SAH ratio. This was associated with significant increases in hepatic TNFα levels, caspase‐8 activity, and cell death. In vitro studies demonstrated that SAH‐enhancing agents sensitized hepatocytes to TNFα killing, and the death was associated with increased caspase‐8 activity, which was blocked by a caspase‐8 inhibitor. In addition, increased intracellular SAH levels had no effect on nuclear factor κB activity induced by TNFα. In conclusion, these results provide a new link between abnormal methionine metabolism and abnormal TNFα metabolism in alcoholic liver disease. Increased SAH is a potent and clinically relevant sensitizer to TNFα hepatotoxicity. These data further support improving the S‐adenosylmethionine‐to‐SAH ratio and removal of intracellular SAH as potential therapeutic options in alcoholic liver disease. Supplementary material for this article can be found on the HEPATOLOGYwebsite (http://interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0270‐9139/suppmat/index.html). (HEPATOLOGY 2004;40:989–997.)

Green Tea Polyphenols and Sulfasalazine have Parallel Anti-Inflammatory Properties in Colitis Models

Background: There is no cure for autoimmune chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). IBD patients commonly use complementary and alternative medications of which the safety, efficacy, and interaction with standard-of-care therapies are not fully known. Thus the consequences can become life-threatening. Sulfasalazine commonly used in IBD, potentially has severe adverse effects, including infertility, pulmonary fibrosis, lack of response, and ultimately patients may require intestinal resection. We hypothesized that green tea polyphenols (GrTP, EGCG) and sulfasalazine have similar anti-inflammatory properties. Methods: BALB/c mice received Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) to induce colitis (ulcerative colitis model). Exposure of IL-10 deficient mice (BALB/c-background) to normal microbiota provoked enterocolitis (mimics Crohn’s disease). Animals were treated with agents incorporated into daily diets. Control animals received sham treatment. Results: DSS-treated animals developed severe bloody diarrhea and colitis (score 0–4, 3.2 ± 0.27). IL-10 deficient mice developed severe enterocolitis as manifested by diarrhea, rectal prolapse, and colonic lesions. Animals tolerated regimens (GrTP, EGCG, sulfasalazine) with no major side effects, and further developed less severe colitis. IL-10 deficient animals became moribund on high dose, while tolerated low and Mid doses with significant improved symptoms of enterocolitis. GrTP, EGCG, and sulfasalazine significantly ameliorated colonic damage and histological scores in treated animals in a similar manner (GrTP vs. DSS p < 0.05; EGCG, sulfasalazine vs. DSS p < 0.01). The inflammatory markers TNFα (3-fold), IL-6 (14-fold), and serum amyloid A (40-fold) increased in colitic animals and significantly decreased with treatment regiments. In contrast, circulatory leptin levels decreased in colitic animals (twofold). EGCG additionally reduced leptin levels (p < 0.01) while GrTP and sulfasalazine had no effect on leptin levels (p < 0.05). Hepatic and colonic antioxidants were significantly depleted in colitic animals and treatment regiments significantly restored antioxidants levels. Conclusion: GrTP and EGCG improved antioxidants levels and attenuated severity of colitis analogous to sulfasalazine. Future studies will reveal whether polyphenols can become an alternative/additive therapy for IBD therapy in humans.

High fructose feeding induces copper deficiency in Sprague-Dawley rats: a novel mechanism for obesity related fatty liver.

BACKGROUND & AIMS Dietary copper deficiency is associated with a variety of manifestations of the metabolic syndrome, including hyperlipidemia and fatty liver. Fructose feeding has been reported to exacerbate complications of copper deficiency. In this study, we investigated whether copper deficiency plays a role in fructose-induced fatty liver and explored the potential underlying mechanism(s). METHODS Male weanling Sprague-Dawley rats were fed either an adequate copper or a marginally copper deficient diet for 4 weeks. Deionized water or deionized water containing 30% fructose (w/v) was also given ad lib. Copper and iron status, hepatic injury and steatosis, and duodenum copper transporter-1 (Ctr-1) were assessed. RESULTS Fructose feeding further impaired copper status and led to iron overload. Liver injury and fat accumulation were significantly induced in marginal copper deficient rats exposed to fructose as evidenced by robustly increased plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and hepatic triglyceride. Hepatic carnitine palmitoyl-CoA transferase I (CPT I) expression was significantly inhibited, whereas hepatic fatty acid synthase (FAS) was markedly up-regulated in marginal copper deficient rats fed with fructose. Hepatic antioxidant defense system was suppressed and lipid peroxidation was increased by marginal copper deficiency and fructose feeding. Moreover, duodenum Ctr-1 expression was significantly increased by marginal copper deficiency, whereas this increase was abrogated by fructose feeding. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that high fructose-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) may be due, in part, to inadequate dietary copper. Impaired duodenum Ctr-1 expression seen in fructose feeding may lead to decreased copper absorption, and subsequent copper deficiency.

S-Adenosylmethionine, cytokines, and alcoholic liver disease.

Hepatic deficiency of S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) is a critical acquired metabolic abnormality in alcoholic liver disease (ALD) and in many experimental models of hepatotoxicity. Subnormal AdoMet, elevated serum tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and endotoxemia (LPS) are hallmarks of ALD and experimental liver injury. AdoMet deficiency is attributed to its subnormal synthesis, but mechanisms for increased TNF are not known. AdoMet deficiency may affect the critical balance of proinflammatory (e.g., TNF) and antiinflammatory [e.g., interleukin (IL)-10] cytokines. Rats maintained on a choline-deficient diet with limited amounts of methionine (MCD diet) developed AdoMet deficiency. When challenged with LPS, rats fed MCD diet had significantly increased serum TNF levels and worse liver injury compared with findings for controls. Exogenous AdoMet attenuated liver injury and serum TNF levels. Results of in vitro studies with the use of RAW 264.7 cells demonstrated that exogenous AdoMet supplementation lowered LPS-induced TNF formation in a dose-dependent manner, and AdoMet deficiency enhanced TNF secretion and TNF gene expression. AdoMet also dose-dependently decreased LPS-stimulated TNF production from monocytes obtained from patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Finally, AdoMet supplementation stimulated production of the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10. Interleukin-10 plays a critical role in the modulation of TNF production, and IL-10 may inhibit hepatic fibrosis. This article will review (1) the role of AdoMet in ALD/liver injury, (2) the role of TNF/proinflammatory cytokines in ALD, (3) potential roles of AdoMet in TNF/proinflammatory cytokine regulation in ALD, and (4) conclusions and future directions.

S-Adenosylmethionine protects against acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in mice.

An overdose of acetaminophen (APAP) is the most frequent cause of fulminant liver failure in the United States. Increasing evidence demonstrates that oxidative stress plays an important etiologic role in APAP-induced liver injury. S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is a key intermediate in the hepatic trans-sulfuration pathway and serves as a precursor for glutathione (GSH) as well as the methyl donor in most transmethylation reactions. In the present study, we investigated effects of SAMe on liver injury induced by APAP administration in male C57BL/6 mice. Two related studies were performed. In the first experiment, SAMe (1g/kg BW) was injected intraperitoneally 4 h before APAP (600 mg/kg BW) administration. In the second experiment, SAMe was injected intraperitoneally 1 h after APAP administration. Our results showed that APAP administration induced changes typical of confluent centrilobular necrosis by histological examination and a marked elevation in serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity. APAP administration induced significant decreases in both hepatic and blood SAMe concentrations. In addition, APAP decreased intracellular (both cytosolic and mitochondrial) GSH concentrations along with increased lipid peroxidation in conjunction with mitochondrial dysfunction as documented by Ca2+-induced mitochondrial permeability transition. SAMe treatment (both before and after APAP) significantly attenuated the liver injury. Exogenous SAMe prevented the decrease in liver and blood SAMe concentrations. Moreover, SAMe treatment attenuated both cytosolic and mitochondrial GSH depletion as well as mitochondrial dysfunction. We conclude that SAMe at least in part protects the liver from APAP-induced injury by preventing intracellular GSH depletion and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Efficacy of a Transforming Growth Factor β2 Containing Nutritional Support Formula in a Murine Model of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Objective: Dietary, environmental and genetic events may influence host susceptibility to inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Transforming growth factor β2 (TGF-β2), a multifunctional polypeptide (cytokine) present in human and bovine milk, plays a critical role in the development of tolerance, the prevention of autoimmunity, and in anti-inflammatory responses. TGF-β2 is a potent inhibitor of intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) growth and stimulates IEC differentiation. The objective of this study was to determine whether a diet containing TGF-β2 modulates intestinal injury and immune responses in an Interleukin-10 knockout (IL-10−/−) mouse model of IBD. Methods: Five-week-old IL-10−/− mice (in BALB/c background) reared in our transgenic facility were fed either an enteral diet (Diet-A) containing TGF-β2 or a control enteral diet (Diet-B) not rich in TGF-β2. Mice were weighed weekly, monitored for illness and euthanized after eight weeks on the diet. Results: Final weights were 28 ± 1.2 g (58.2% gain) for Diet-A mice and 23 ± 1.6 g (32.9% gain) for Diet-B mice (p = 0.0194). The hematocrits were 48.3% for Diet-A compared to 42% for Diet-B mice (p = 0.0021). Mice on Diet-A had significantly lower serum TNF-α concentrations. Forty-four percent of mice on Diet-B developed severe diarrhea and rectal prolapse compared with none on Diet-A. Evaluation of intestinal pathology (score 0–4) revealed that animals fed Diet-A had a score of 2.1 ± 0.4 compared to 3.2 ± 0.36 in the Diet-B group (p = 0.040). The acute phase protein, serum amyloid A (SAA), was 3.8 times higher in the Diet-B group (p = 0.0038). Conclusions: IL-10−/− mice fed a TGF-β2 containing diet gained more weight, did not develop diarrhea or prolapse, had lower pathological scores, and lower SAAs. These data further support the use of TGF-β2 containing enteral diets as one mode of therapy for Crohn’s disease.

Acetaminophen-induced depletion of glutathione and cysteine in the aging mouse kidney

Glutathione (GSH) plays an essential role in the detoxification of acetaminophen (APAP) and the prevention of APAP-induced toxicity in the kidney. Our previous results demonstrated that a GSH deficiency is a general property of aging tissues, including the kidney, suggesting a hypothesis that senescent organisms are at greater risk to APAP-induced renal damage. To test this, C57BL/6NIA mice of different ages through the life span were injected with various doses of APAP, and the extent of GSH and cysteine (Cys) depletion and recovery were determined. At time intervals up to 24 hr, kidney cortex samples were obtained, processed and analyzed for glutathione status, namely GSH, glutathione disulfide (GSSG), Cys and cystine, using an HPLC method with dual electrochemical detection. In the uninjected controls, GSH and Cys concentrations decreased about 30% in the aging mouse, but the GSSG and cystine levels were unchanged during the life span. APAP administration depleted the kidney GSH and Cys contents in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Four hours after APAP administration, GSH levels of the young, growing (3- to 6-month) and the mature (12-month) mice decreased 34 and 58%, respectively, and recovered to near control values by 24 hr (95 and 98%). In contrast, the extent of depletion in old (31-month) mice was greater (64%) and the 24-hr recovery was less, returning only to 56%. Likewise, Cys levels of the young and mature mice decreased 49 and 65%, respectively, 4 hr following APAP, and increased to 99 and 85% by 24 hr. In contrast, in old mice, there was a 78% depletion after 4 hr followed by a recovery of only 65% by 24 hr. These results demonstrated clearly that in the aging mouse kidney, a GSH and Cys deficiency occurs that is accompanied by an impaired APAP detoxification capacity.