Thijs van Kolfschoten

The earliest occupation of Europe: a short chronology

A reappraisal of the artefactual and chronological evidence for the earliest occupation of Europe — with proper attention to its limitations and its reliability — makes for a short chronology. The first solid traces of hominid activities in this part of the world are around 500,000 years old.

Investigation of equid paleodiet from Schöningen 13 II-4 through dental wear and isotopic analyses: Archaeological implications

The paleodietary traits of the equid population from Schöningen 13 II-4 were investigated through tooth mesowear and microwear analyses, as well as stable isotopic analyses. The mesowear pattern observed on the upper teeth indicates a low abrasion diet with a significant amount of browse in the diet of the horses. The tooth microwear analysis and the isotopic data confirm that the horses from Schöningen 13 II-4 were mixed feeders, like many populations from other Pleistocene localities in Northern and Eastern Europe. Microwear also provides information on seasonal changes in the diet of the horses and offers the possibility to test hypotheses about the presence of one or several horse populations. Our analysis determined that the assemblage of horse remains from Schöningen 13 II-4 resulted from multiple accumulation events, which took place at different periods of time.

Response of the European mammalian fauna to the mid-Pleistocene transition

Abstract The end of the Early Pleistocene is intriguing particularly for mammalian palaeontologists. In Eurasia, this interval has a faunal turnover caused by both the evolution and migration of species. It is the time in which the famous end-Villafranchian ‘event’ takes place, a phenomenon characterized by a faunal turnover resulting mainly from the migration of larger mammals. The smaller mammal record reveals in particular an important radiation in medium-sized voles. Different Microtus species evolve rapidly from species of the genus Allophaiomys, and various lineages can be observed. This radiation finally leads to the diversity seen today. In eastern Europe, particularly on the Russian Plain and the Taman Peninsula, a number of localities occur where faunal assemblages from well-dated stratigraphic sequences can be analysed. These assemblages show the mid-Pleistocene evolution of rodent faunas within eastern Europe. Identical and synchronous changes in the mammalian faunas are found in other parts of Europe. However, a fauna from Untermassfeld in Germany does not fit this general picture, and serious doubts about its published age must be considered.

The larger mammal fauna from the Lower Paleolithic Schöningen Spear site and its contribution to hominin subsistence

The locality Schöningen (Germany) is an important source of knowledge about Lower Paleolithic hominin subsistence. The locality includes a series of sites dated to the late Middle Pleistocene with a Holsteinian (MIS 11) and Reinsdorf Interglacial (MIS 9) age. One of the youngest sites is Schöningen 13 II-4, the Spear Horizon site also known as the Horse Butchery site. The organic remains excavated here are exceptionally well-preserved as they were embedded in anaerobic, waterlogged sediments in an area where the groundwater is rich in calcium carbonate. The fossil assemblage is ideal for the study of patterns in hominin interference with the mammalian species encountered at the site. The vertebrate record is extensive and very diverse. The fossil larger carnivore guild of the Spear Horizon faunal assemblage includes saber-toothed cat, fox, and wolf. Herbivores are represented by an elephant species, two equid species, two rhinoceros species, two cervid species, and two large bovid species. Evidence of hominin interference presents itself as either marks on skeletal remains related to the use of bones as knapping tools or hammers, or as marks that indicate butchering activities such as skinning, dismembering, defleshing, filleting, and marrow extraction. The humerus of the saber-toothed cat clearly shows that the bone has been used as a knapping tool. The fossil remains of the other larger carnivores do not show any signs of hominin interference or exploitation. This also applies to the limited number of elephant and rhinoceros remains found at the site. The large horse Equus mosbachensis dominates the larger mammal record and played a major role in hominin subsistence. Marks on the horse bones indicate that a large number of carcasses have been butchered. Traces on the fossil remains of both red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the large bovids also indicate exploitation by Lower Paleolithic hominins.

The European saber-toothed cat (Homotherium latidens) found in the “Spear Horizon” at Schöningen (Germany)

The 300,000 year old Lower Paleolithic site Schöningen 13 II-4 became world famous with the discovery of the oldest well-preserved and complete wooden spears. Through ongoing excavations, new archaeological discoveries of scientific importance are still being made from the same archaeological layer where the spears were found. In this context, remains of a rare carnivore species, the European saber-toothed cat (Homotherium latidens), were recovered. Here we present five teeth and one humerus fragment that are unambiguously from two individual saber-toothed cats. The humerus is a unique specimen; it shows evidence of hominin impacts and use as a percussor. The Homotherium remains from Schöningen are the best documented finds of this species in an archaeological setting and they are amongst the youngest specimens of Homotherium in Europe. The presence of this species as a carnivore competitor would certainly have impacted the lives of late Middle Pleistocene hominins. The discovery illustrates the possible day-to-day challenges that the Schöningen hominins would have faced and suggests that the wooden spears were not necessarily only used for hunting, but possibly also as a weapon for self-defense.

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes of well-preserved Middle Pleistocene bone collagen from Schoningen (Germany) and their paleoecological implications

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in bone collagen can provide valuable information about the diet and habitat of mammal species. However, bone collagen degrades in normal circumstances very rapidly, and isotope analyses are therefore usually restricted to fossil material with a Late Pleistocene or Holocene age. The Middle Pleistocene site of Schöningen, dated to around 300,000 years ago, yielded bones and teeth with an exceptionally good state of collagen preservation. This allowed us to measure reliable biogenic carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios for different herbivorous taxa from the families Elephantidae, Rhinocerotidae, Equidae, Cervidae, and Bovidae. The results provide insights regarding the paleoenvironmental setting in which Middle Pleistocene hominins operated. The vegetation consumed by the herbivores from the famous spear horizon originates from open environments. During the climatic Reinsdorf Interglacial optimum, the landscape seems to have been relatively open as well, but certainly included parts that were forested. The results also indicate some niche partitioning; different herbivore species used different plant resources. For instance, the horses seem to have been predominantly browsers, while the straight-tusked elephants were feeding chiefly on grass.

Elevated δ15N values in mammoths: a comparison with modern elephants

The extinct Pleistocene woolly mammoth bone collagen shows compared with collagen from other contemporaneous large herbivores remarkably high δ15N values. In order to investigate if the observed discrepancy in δ15N values between Pleistocene woolly mammoths and coeval large ungulates also exists in modern relatives, we investigated the δ15N (and δ13C) values in nails of modern proboscideans, rhinoceroses and horses kept in captivity and with a comparable forage. The results of this study show that the nails of the different modern herbivores, supplied with similar diet, have more or less identical δ15N values, so elephants do not show higher δ15N values. How to explain the high values in Pleistocene mammoths? Two different options will be discussed.

Foreword to the Special Issue: Arctic Palaeoclimate and Its Extremes (APEX)

The recent mass loss of the Greenland ice sheet (Chen et al. 2006), the observed increases in the velocity of its fast-flowing outlets (Luthcke et al. 2006) and the melting of the permafrost demonstrate the profound changes occurring in the Arctic region as a result of global warming (ACIA 2005). This is corroborated by systematic satellite monitoring that shows there has been a progressive decrease in the extent of sea ice over the last 30 years, with a record low in 2007 (Comiso et al. 2008). Forward modelling predicts accelerated rates of sea-ice disintegration and the almost complete disappearance of Arctic Ocean summer sea-ice cover within this century. It is clear that the environment in the Arctic is changing at a pace not previously monitored by humankind. It is equally clear, however, that to place the current changes in a millennial time perspective, we need to know more about the Pleistocene natural variability and amplitude of, for example, the Greenland ice sheet, Arctic Ocean sea ice and permafrost. Such a longer time perspective can only be established through international collaborative and multidisciplinary studies of nature’s own archives, such as marine and terrestrial stratigraphic records, sediment distribution and landforms.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE LARGER VOLES

Abstract The Quaternary smaller mammal faunas are often dominated by voles. The evolutionary stages of these voles have appeared to be very useful for biostratigraphical correlations. Of particular importance are the larger voles. Although they have been studied extensively, there is no consensus on the relationship between the Early and Middle Pleistocene larger voles, which hampers the establishment of detailed biostratigraphical correlations. Four different models published during the past decade age presented and briefly discussed in this paper. The broadly accepted relationship between M. ostramosensis and the Biharian larger voles, referred to M. savini by many authors, is treated more extensively and is questioned. The other models, such as a proposed relationship between Cromeromys s.l. and the Biharian larger voles are not investigated well enough, nor are they well established. It is therefore concluded that the Early Pleistocene larger voles should be re-investigated in detail in order to shed more light on the origin of the Middle Pleistocene larger voles.

Differentiating sibling species in the Quaternary fossil record: a comparison of morphological and molecular methods to identify Microtus arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis (Arvicolinae, Rodenia)

The sibling species Microtus arvalis and Microtus rossiaemeridionalis are widely sympatric, North Eurasian species that are difficult to trace back in the fossil record due to the lack of criteria for taxonomic identification. This paper examines the potential of morphometric and molecular methods for differentiating their fossil remains. Discriminant function (DF) analysis of linear measurements of the lower first molar (m1) is used to create and validate a predictive model for taxonomic identification using modern M. arvalis (obscurus karyotypic form) and M. rossiaemeridionalis from the Ural Mountains. For modern specimens both the derived DF and the molecular methods yielded identical results for species identification. DF derived from modern data was applied to m1s of M. arvalis sensu lato from Subatlanticum (1300–1200 BP) and Atlanticum (7380 ± 150 BP) layers of the Pershinskaya 1 cave in the Middle Urals. In addition, from 27 mandibles with m1 in the morphological dataset 258 bp of cytochrome b were sequenced using ancient DNA techniques. Comparison of the morphological and molecular results revealed a substantial loss of predictive power of the DF derived from modern data when applied to fossils. Morphological change since the mid Holocene appears detrimental to DF derived from recent data. Our results emphasize the need for verification of taxonomic inferences from morphological data when dealing with sibling species, and accentuate the advantages of joint use of morphological and molecular methods in differentiating cryptic taxa in the fossil record.