Thomas E. Becker

Employee Commitment and Motivation: A Conceptual Analysis and Integrative Model.

Theorists and researchers interested in employee commitment and motivation have not made optimal use of each others work. Commitment researchers seldom address the motivational processes through which commitment affects behavior, and motivation researchers have not recognized important distinctions in the forms, foci, and bases of commitment. To encourage greater cross-fertilization, the authors present an integrative framework in which commitment is presented as one of several energizing forces for motivated behavior. E. A. Lockes (1997) model of the work motivation process and J. P. Meyer and L. Herscovitchs (2001) model of workplace commitments serve as the foundation for the development of this new framework. To facilitate the merger, a new concept, goal regulation, is derived from self-determination theory (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985) and regulatory focus theory (E. I. Higgins, 1997). By including goal regulation, it is acknowledged that motivated behavior can be accompanied by different mindsets that have particularly important implications for the explanation and prediction of discretionary work behavior.

Potential Problems in the Statistical Control of Variables in Organizational Research: A Qualitative Analysis With Recommendations

The author examines statistical control in a random sample of 60 articles published in four top journals during 2000 to 2002. Authors’bases for including control variables, clarity regarding measures and methods, and reporting of results were recorded. Potential problems included a lack of explanations for inclusion, unclear descriptions of measures and methods, incomplete reporting, and other flaws. Implications for interpreting results, replication, future reviews, and effect sizes are discussed. Twelve recommendations for addressing these issues are offered.

Communication, Procedural Justice, and Employee Attitudes: Relationships Under Conditions of Divestiture:

This study examines the relationships among managerial communication, perceptions of the procedural justice of layoffs, and employee attitudes within the context of divestiture. As we expected, employee perceptions of procedural justice regarding the divestiture predicted, at one point in time, trust in new ownership and, two months later, post-divestiture commitment to the organization. Also as hypothesized, perceptions of the justice of the divestiture explained variance in trust and commitment above and beyond that explained by the perceived justice of the layoffs. Finally, as predicted, managerial communications that helped employees understand the events surrounding the divestiture increased perceptions of the procedural justice of the divestiture and layoffs, and had both indirect and direct effects on future commitment.

The Multidimensional View of Commitment and the Theory of Reasoned Action: A Comparative Evaluation

This study examined the relative ability of the multidimensional view of commitment and the theory of reasoned action to explain employee intentions and predict work behavior. Variables within the theory of reasoned action were superior to commitment in explaining employee intentions to be punctual and to engage in altruistic acts. However, the theory of reasoned action did not explain unique variance in either volitional behavior (altruism) or in less volitional behavior (tardiness). Finally, foci and bases of employee commitment accounted for significant variance in both altruism and tardiness, and explained variance in both behaviors over and above variables contained within the theory of reasoned action. Implications of these findings for the usefulness of the approaches are discussed.

Matching Commitment to Supervisors and Organizations to In-Role and Extra-Role Performance

There are mixed findings regarding the relations between affective and continuance commitment and job performance. However, past research has largely disregarded the concept of commitment foci and overlooked the importance of matching commitment foci to the target of performance-related behavior. In this study, supervisors rated 189 employees on 2 types of performance hypothesized to be directed more toward supervisors than organizations: in-role performance and courtesy. They also rated 2 types hypothesized to be directed more toward organizations than supervisors: civic virtue and loyal boosterism. After controlling for other forms of commitment, affective commitment to supervisors explained unique variance in in-role performance and courtesy. Affective commitment to organizations did not. After controlling for other forms of commitment, affective commitment to organizations explained unique variance in loyal boosterism. Affective commitment to supervisors did not. Continuance commitment to supervisors and organizations was unrelated to performance. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Validity of Scores on Three Attachment Style Scales: Exploratory and Confirmatory Evidence

This study reports the development of three attachment style scales. The factor structure of the attachment style construct was supported via exploratory factor analysis of attachment style scores from 1,181 recent graduates of one university and confirmatory factor analysis of scores from 545 recent graduates of another university. Additional evidence for the validity of scores produced by the scales was that scores on the new measures correlated with scores from previously developed scales and were associated as expected with scores on a measure of the Big Five personality traits.

Dual Commitments to Organizations and Professions: Different Motivational Pathways to Productivity

Commitments to organizations and professions have important implications for behavior in the workplace, but little is known about how these dual commitments combine to affect organizational outcomes. We present a model proposing that commitment to professions influences productivity through a positive effect on intrinsic motivation and a negative effect on extrinsic motivation. Commitment to organizations, conversely, is hypothesized to have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation and a positive effect on extrinsic motivation. We tested the model with a sample of 237 tenured management professors and, overall, the model fit the data well and better than less parsimonious models or ones positing reverse causality. Commitment to the profession was positively related to intrinsic motivation to engage in research and, through this effect, resulted in more challenging research goals, increased commitment to those goals, more hours spent on research, and greater research productivity. Commitment to the organization (university) was positively related to extrinsic motivation and negatively related to intrinsic motivation and was unrelated to goal level, goal commitment, hours spent on research, and research productivity. Our model makes a unique theoretical contribution by revealing the differing paths by which commitments to organizations and professions affect work outcomes, and our results support and extend commitment theory and offer unique insights into posttenure productivity.

Defeating abusive supervision: Training supervisors to support subordinates.

Although much is known about the antecedents and consequences of abusive supervision, scant attention has been paid to investigating procedures to reduce its frequency. We conducted a quasiexperiment to examine the effects of supervisor support training on subordinate perceptions of abusive supervision and supervisor support. Supervisors (n = 23) in 4 restaurants were trained in 4 supportive supervision strategies (benevolence, sincerity, fairness, and experiential processing) during 4 2-hr sessions over a period of 2 months. We compared perceived supervisor support and abusive supervision before and 9 months after training for 208 employees whose supervisors received support training and 241 employees in 4 similar control restaurants. Compared to employees in the control restaurants, employees whose supervisors received the support training reported higher levels of perceived supervisor support and less abusive supervision. These findings suggest that a relatively brief training program can help managers become more supportive and less abusive. Theoretical and practical implications for effectively managing abusive supervision are discussed.

Why Pragmatism is not Practical

David Jacobs would have you believe that pragmatism offers a superior approach to understanding and promoting integrity in organizations. To be sure, Jacobs offers some sound advice on the topic, such as considering long-term consequences, avoiding compartmentalization, and not repressing emotions. However, this advice is not unique to pragmatism; for example, see Becker (1998), Locke and Becker (1998), Peikoff (1991), and Rand (1964) for an Objectivist defense of these and related ideas. Furthermore, in attacking nonpragmatist perspectives on integrity, Jacobs erects an army of straw men. For instance, he asserts that objectivism rejects social reality and advocates a “limited benevolence toward others.” Although it is true that Objectivism is explicitly individualistic and is against self-sacrifice (altruism) on moral grounds, Ayn Rand and her followers have expressed appreciation for the tremendous potential benefits that come from living in society and interacting with other rational people. Furthermore, there is nothing in the Objectivist literature suggesting an unreasonably limited benevolence or severely narrow self-interest. Goodwill toward and positive relationships with other people— in the forms of friendship, love, and common respect—are integral parts of Rand’s fiction and philosophy (see, e.g., The Fountainhead [1943] and Peikoff’s [1991] discussion of friendship and love in Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand). Naturally, there are boundaries—one probably would not want to become close friends with a Jeffrey Dahmer or give generously to a terrorist organization. However within these boundaries, a person’s long-term, best interests are served by benevolence and the development of close relationships with others. I address three major reasons why pragmatism is not a practical basis for studying and promoting integrity—or anything else for that matter. I argue that the philosophy extolled by Jacobs does not encourage the formulation and application of principles or the acknowledgement of truth. Furthermore, I intend to show that this approach improperly subordinates the individual to the collective, thereby robbing the individual and society of the long-term benefits of the creative efforts of individuals. Any philosophy that has these characteristics cannot be useful to any wellmeaning scientist or manager.

Nonlinear Transformations in Organizational Research: Possible Problems and Potential Solutions

We examined the use of nonlinear transformation of variables in a random sample of 323 articles published in six top journals during 2012-2017. Coding categories included the number of transformed variables, the type of transformation, the kinds of variables transformed, reasons provided for transforming variables, how transformed results were reported, and pre- and posttransformation analysis of variables. Common problems include insufficient justification for transforming variables, overreliance on log transformations, failure to report important information on the effects of transformation, and incomplete reporting and discussion of transformed results. Perhaps most importantly, there was frequent misalignment between statements of hypotheses, typically stated in terms of nontransformed variables, and the transformed data used to test them. We discuss the implications of these problems for science and practice, offer recommendations for addressing the issues, and provide illustrations of how to implement the recommendations.