Thomas E. Hanlon

The criminality of narcotic addicts

Recent research conducted by independent investigators concerning the relationship between crime and narcotic (primarily heroin) addiction has revealed a remarkable degree of consistency of findings across studies. The major conclusion supported by the majority of these studies is that narcotic addicts commit a vast amount of crime and that much of this is directly related to the need to purchase drugs. A large proportion of the crimes committed does not consist merely of drug sales or possession, but involves other criminal behaviors including serious crimes. The strongest evidence of a causal relationship between narcotic drug use and crime is derived from longitudinal studies in which the amount of crime committed during periods of active addiction far exceeds that committed during periods of nonaddiction. Much of this crime goes unreported, although addicts, under conditions of strict confidentiality, have provided information that permits realistic estimates of criminal activity. Use of this methodology has permitted the identification of different types of addicts, especially with respect to the amounts and types of crimes in which they are engaged. The implication of these findings is that although addicts as a group commit a great amount of crime, they cannot be regarded as a homogeneous class. Some addicts commit many crimes, regardless of current addiction status, whereas others commit relatively few, and these are obviously related to their need to purchase drugs. There is a discernible impact of treatment on narcotic drug use and criminality. Although the relationships between addict characteristics and treatment response have yet to be fully determined, extensive prior criminal involvement is associated with a negative outcome.

Prediction of the Criminal Activity of Incarcerated Drug-Abusing Offenders

This study examined self-report information from a structured interview on the drug use, employment status, drug distribution income, and criminal behavior of 188 drug-abusing offenders in the six months prior to the commission of the offense for which they were incarcerated. The purpose of the study was to determine the extent to which drug use and income-producing activity was related to the variety, frequency, and severity of criminal behavior during this six-month period. Results revealed that the major predictors of a greater variety of crime were male gender, fewer months employed, and a larger number of different drugs used; the major predictors of a greater frequency of crime were fewer months employed and greater cocaine use and drug distribution income; and the major predictors of a greater severity of crime were younger age and male gender. Interestingly, the use of marijuana in cases that did not involve opioid use was related to the commission of more violent crimes. Subsequent examination of this result revealed that violent activity was associated with the relatively high drug distribution income for those marijuana users who did not use opioids or cocaine. Implications of this and other findings for corrections planning and public policy are discussed.

Early Deviance and Related Risk Factors in the Children of Narcotic Addicts

This descriptive study examines the self-reported behaviors of 285 male and female adolescent children (ages 12-17) of narcotic addicts participating in methadone maintenance programs. These children responded to an extensive 2.5-hour interview questionnaire focusing on current and past activities, including criminal activities prior to age 12. The findings revealed that early deviance, assessed by self-report measures of both severity and variety, is related to current adolescent drug and alcohol use, association with deviant peers, a negative view of home atmosphere, and psychological symptomatology. These results are contrasted with the retrospective reports of adolescent behavior obtained from adult male narcotic addicts in a prior study of vulnerability to addiction. The comparability of study results is discussed in the context of developmental risk factors, prevention and treatment strategies, and other considerations specifically related to the development of children of narcotic addicts.

Incarcerated Drug-Abusing Mothers: Their Characteristics and Vulnerability

Although the number of mothers with histories of drug addiction who are incarcerated has grown substantially in recent years, there is little information on their unique characteristics and vulnerability. Undertaken to address this issue, this study examined data on 167 incarcerated drug-abusing mothers from Baltimore City who had volunteered for a parenting program offered at a Maryland correctional facility. Prior to entering this program, mothers who consented to participate completed a battery of assessment measures, which included an extensive interview covering their early developmental and current experiences, along with standardized instruments measuring psychological adjustment and parenting satisfaction. Analyses of these data focused on the link between risk/protective factor information drawn from the early development experiences of the mothers and their current adjustment status. Results revealed significant relationships between higher risk levels and less favorable current adjustment. Implications of the findings of the study for both prevention and clinical intervention efforts targeting both mothers and their children are discussed.

An Early Community-Based Intervention for the Prevention of Substance Abuse and Other Delinquent Behavior.

This paper presents the results of an evaluation of an early intervention, risk-reduction strategy versus a standard intervention approach in the treatment of inner-city youth at high risk of adopting a deviant lifestyle. It examines baseline and 1-year follow-up information provided by 408 youth admitted to 2 community-based Baltimore City “Youth Bureaus” offering counseling services for neighborhood youth referred for delinquent and other problematic behavior. In the study, one of these bureaus served as the experimental intervention clinic and the other as the control, or standard intervention, clinic. Outcome measures involved substance abuse; sexual activity; contact with juvenile authorities; and delinquent activity, including violence-related activity. Regression analyses of outcome measures revealed significant differential results for delinquent activity, which favored the experimental intervention. Relationships between risk/protective factors and outcome are discussed.

Differential contributions of family and peer factors to the etiology of narcotic addiction

This retrospective study investigated relationships among early family circumstances, peer associations, and narcotic addiction in a sample of 601 urban males. Results of logistic regression analyses indicated that the extent of deviant behavior among close friends at ages 12-14 and disruption in family structure (parental divorce/separation) prior to age 11 were significantly associated with narcotic addiction. Additional regression analyses indicated that deviant behavior among family members, as well as family disruption, experienced prior to age 11, also increased the probability of association with deviant peers and a negative home atmosphere at ages 12-14. Implications of these findings for preventive interventions and for future research are presented.

The Effectiveness of an After-school Program Targeting Urban African American Youth

The present study reports on the effectiveness at one-year follow-up of an after-school prevention program targeting 6th grade African American youth residing in high-risk urban areas. The program, conducted on-site over the school-year period, involved a group mentoring approach emphasizing remedial education and an appreciation of African American cultural heritage in promoting school bonding, social skills development, and greater academic achievement. Behavioral and adjustment outcome data were obtained from two participating middle-school sites (intervention and comparison, involving 237 and 241 students, respectively) serving essentially equivalent urban communities. Results of the study revealed significant effects for academic achievement and behavior in terms of grade point average and teacher ratings that favored students at the intervention site. At this site, greater participation of parents in the intervention program was found to be positively related to improvement of the children in grade point average. No differential site-related changes in negative behavior were observed.

Clinical predictors of relapse following neuroleptic withdrawal

The validity of previously hypothesized predictors of elapse following neuroleptic discontinuation was examined. One hundred sixty-two outpatients, with either Research Diagnostic Criteria schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, were discontinued from neuroleptic medication for a 28-day period or until judged to be relapsed. Pre-discontinuation neuroleptic dosage level, the severity of psychotic symptoms, and the presence of dyskinetic movements prior to neuroleptic discontinuation were the predictor variables. Of the 162 patients, 62.7% did not relapse during the study period. There were no differences in the survival rates between the patients withdrawn from oral versus depot neuroleptics. Neuroleptic dosage, but not severity of psychotic symptoms or dyskinetic movements, predicted relapse. These results support the hypothesis that pre-withdrawal neuroleptic dosage level predicts relapse, but fail to validate either severity of psychotic symptoms or presence of dyskinetic movements as predictors of relapse.

Methadone/LAAM maintenance: A comparison study

NE MAJOR PROBLEM with methadone in the maintenance approach to treatment of addiction is its short duration of action, requiring daily administration and often entailing daily clinic attendance. When more than one day’s supply is given with take-home privileges, the likelihood of illegal dispersion and accidental ingestion by nonaddicted individuals is created. The requirements of daily clinic attendance become an interference with the patient’s way of life and might be considered a form of dependence in its own right. LAAM (I-alpha-acetylmethadol), a longer acting compound chemically similar to methadone, has the potential for preventing the problems associated with methadone. Since LAAM prevents withdrawal for more than 48 hr, it is necessary to administer it only three times weekly, thus limiting administration of medication to the clinic and requiring patients to report to the clinic less often. Consequently, the anticipated advantages of LAAM are that its use would curtail illegal dispersion of a drug of dependence and at the same time allow patients to lead more conventional lives, being less dependent on the clinic. According to Blachly, David, and Irwin, I the major advantages of LAAM are: (1) it will suppress abstinence symptoms for about twice as long as methadone: (2) its action is “smoother;” (3) there is less complaint of “nodding;” (4) it is more effective orally than parenterally, hence it is less likely to be abused; and (5) there is less subjective euphoria. Its major disadvantages are the occurrence of: (1) a subjective amphetamine-like effect and dysphoria in some patients; (2) occasional complaints of feeling less “mellow;” and (3) occasional complaints of abdominal cramps. In their comparison of methadone and LAAM, Blachly, David, and Irwin reported that EEG abnormalities were present in 53% of all patients, 63% of those on methadone, and 38.5% of those on LAAM, and that fasting hyperglycemia occurred in 62% of the LAAM patients as opposed to 2 1% of those on methadone. Only the latter difference was significant.

Early family adversity as a precursor to narcotic addiction

This retrospective study examined differences among three groups of urban males in the prevalence of various family risk factors occurring before age 11 and their independent contributions to subsequent deviance. The groups included: narcotic addicts; never-addicted peer controls who were associates of the addicts at age 11; and never-addicted community controls not associated with the addicts. Sixty-four percent of the addicts, compared to slightly under 40% of both control groups, reportedly experienced one or more family risk factors involving deviant behavior among family members and family disruption before age 11. While community controls differed from addicts on both family deviance and disruption in family structure, peer controls differed from addicts only on disruption of family structure. For the total sample, both family deviance and family disruption experienced before age 11 were significantly associated with crime severity level at age 11. Implications of these findings for future substance abuse research and intervention are discussed.