Thomas E. Levy

Earliest date for milk use in the Near East and southeastern Europe linked to cattle herding

The domestication of cattle, sheep and goats had already taken place in the Near East by the eighth millennium bc. Although there would have been considerable economic and nutritional gains from using these animals for their milk and other products from living animals—that is, traction and wool—the first clear evidence for these appears much later, from the late fifth and fourth millennia bc. Hence, the timing and region in which milking was first practised remain unknown. Organic residues preserved in archaeological pottery have provided direct evidence for the use of milk in the fourth millennium in Britain, and in the sixth millennium in eastern Europe, based on the δ13C values of the major fatty acids of milk fat. Here we apply this approach to more than 2,200 pottery vessels from sites in the Near East and southeastern Europe dating from the fifth to the seventh millennia bc. We show that milk was in use by the seventh millennium; this is the earliest direct evidence to date. Milking was particularly important in northwestern Anatolia, pointing to regional differences linked with conditions more favourable to cattle compared to other regions, where sheep and goats were relatively common and milk use less important. The latter is supported by correlations between the fat type and animal bone evidence.

Early Bronze Age metallurgy: a newly discovered copper manufactory in southern Jordan

Recent excavations in southern Jordan have revealed the largest Early Bronze Age (c. 3600-2000 BC) metal manufactory in the ancient Near East. On-site Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analyses of the finds provide new evidence concerning the scale and organization of metal production at a time when the first cities emerged in this part of the Near East. Materials and lead isotope analyses of the metallurgical finds provide important data for reconstructing ancient metal processing and for identifying trade networks.

The beginning of Iron Age copper production in the southern Levant: new evidence from Khirbat al-Jariya, Faynan, Jordan

The authors have explored the workplace and house of copper workers of the early Iron Age (twelfth to tenth century BC) in Jordans Wadi Faynan copper ore district, showing that it belongs in time between the collapse of the great Bronze Age states and the arrival of Egyptians in the area under Sheshonq I. They attribute this production to local tribes – perhaps those engaged in building the biblical kingdom of Edom.

The Chalcolithic radiocarbon record and its use in southern Levantine archaeology

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Chalcolithic period (5th-4th millennium BCE) in the southern Levant was a time of significant settlement expansion and increasing social complexity. Important technological and social developments during this era set the stage for the later rise of fortified sites and nascence of urbanization in the Early Bronze Age. Controversy surrounding the chronology of Chalcolithic settlement and the reconstruction of social trajectories has stimulated an interest in building a database of radiocarbon dates to measure the tempo of change and help resolve these issues. To facilitate social evolutionary research, this paper reviews and updates published 14 C data for the southern Levantine Chalcolithic. The now-substantial database supports the generally accepted time frame for this archaeological period and allows synchronic comparisons across diverse geographic subregions in the southern Levant. In addition, it helps to temporally place the emergence of sophisticated technologies and the development of complex social institutions within the Chalcolithic period. However, radiometrically based attempts at pan-regional internal periodization of the Chalcolithic and fine-tuning of protohistoric events such as site establishment and abandonment are frustrated by the lack of precision in 14 C dates, which limits their ability to resolve chronological sequence. Improved delineation of Chalcolithic social trajectories can be achieved most effectively by focussing research efforts on stratigraphic and typological investigations of deeply-stratified settlement sites such as Teleilat Ghassul and Shiqmim within their local contexts.

Dealing with Archaeology's Data Avalanche

The increasing availability and relatively low cost of digital data collection technologies have created a data avalanche for archaeologists. In this paper, we discuss a system that integrates geographic information system (GlS)-based artifact and material sample data sets with massive point clouds within an interactive visual analysis environment. Our system lets researchers revisit archeological sites virtually, with the entirety of the captured record accessible for exploration.

Decadal-scale variations in geomagnetic field intensity from ancient Cypriot slag mounds

Geomagnetic models based on direct observations since the 1830s show that the averaged relative change in field intensity on Earths surface over the past 170 years is less than 4.8% per decade. It is unknown if these rates represent the typical behavior of secular variations due to insufficient temporal resolution of archaeomagnetic records from earlier periods. To address this question, we investigate two ancient slag mounds in Cyprus—Skouriotissa Vouppes (SU1, fourth to fifth centuries CE, 21 m in height), and Mitsero Kokkinoyia (MK1, seventh to fifth centuries BCE, 8 m in height). The mounds are multilayered sequences of slag and charcoals that accumulated near ancient copper production sites. We modeled the age-height relation of the mounds using radiocarbon dates, and estimated paleointensities using Thellier-type IZZI experiments with additional anisotropy, cooling rate, and nonlinear TRM assessments. To screen out ambiguous paleointensity interpretations, we applied strict selection criteria at the specimen/sample levels. To ensure objectivity, consistency, and robust error estimation, we employed an automatic interpretation technique and put the data available in the MagIC database. The analyses yielded two independent subcentury-scale paleointensity time series. The MK1 data indicate relatively stable field at the time the mound accumulated. In contrast, the SU1 data demonstrate changes that are comparable in magnitude to the fastest changes inferred from geomagnetic models. We suggest that fast changes observed in the published archaeomagnetic data from the Levant are driven by two longitudinally paired regions, the Middle East and South Africa, that show unusual activity in geomagnetic models.

New Evidence on Prehistoric Trade Routes: The Obsidian Evidence from Gilat, Israel

AbstractObsidian artifacts are rare finds in prehistoric sites in Israel. The scarcity of the material and the absence of obsidian sources in Israel makes such artifacts especially important for understanding ancient exchange patterns. The closest sources of obsidian found in Israel are in the Cycladic Islands of Greece to the west and Anatolia to the north. Using neutron activation analysis (NAA), we identify the origin of seven obsidian artifacts from the Chalcolithic (ca. 4500–3500 B.C.) site of Gil at in Israels northern Negev desert. These finds have been traced to the Nemrut Dagarea of eastern Anatolia, Gollu Dagin central Anatolia, and, most interestingly, Hotamis Dag also in central Anatolia.

Magnetic and Electromagnetic Induction Studies at Archaeological Sites in Southwestern Jordan

In support of ongoing archaeological excavations in southwestern Jordan, a number of geophysical studies have been performed in this region. The work reported was executed in three different years and, in the first year, electromagnetic induction, magnetometry, and ground penetrating radar studies were performed at three sites in the region known to have buried stone walls. While integrated geophysical methods were planned, this first field experience revealed that electromagnetic induction provided, by far, the most useful results and this became the mainstay of subsequent geophysical investigations. To date, five large sites and numerous smaller sites have been surveyed ranging in dates of occupation from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic to the Iron Age. Results from three of the larger sites are reported here. These sites are sufficiently large that they cannot be completely excavated in a single field season and the results of the geophysics are used to identify the most interesting areas at a particular sit...

Some Thoughts on Khirbet En-Nahas, Edom, Biblical History and Anthropologya Response to Israel Finkelstein

Abstract Israel Finkelsteins recent comments inTel Aviv regarding our paper on the Iron Age excavations at Khirbet en-Nahas in southern Jordan contain numerous misinterpretations of the data. This short response outlines why those comments are erroneous. In particular, we describe why the formation of complex societies in Iron Age Edom did not occur under Assyrian tutelage.

Cultural heritage omni-stereo panoramas for immersive cultural analytics — From the Nile to the Hijaz

The digital imaging acquisition and visualization techniques described here provides a hyper-realistic stereoscopic spherical capture of cultural heritage sites. An automated dualcamera system is used to capture sufficient stereo digital images to cover a sphere or cylinder. The resulting stereo images are projected undistorted in VR systems providing an immersive virtual environment in which researchers can collaboratively study the important textural details of an excavation or historical site. This imaging technique complements existing technologies such as LiDAR or SfM providing more detailed textural information that can be used in conjunction for analysis and visualization. The advantages of this digital imaging technique for cultural heritage can be seen in its non-invasive and rapid capture of heritage sites for documentation, analysis, and immersive visualization. The technique is applied to several significant heritage sites in Luxor, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.