Thomas Fincannon

Team Size, Team Role, Communication Modality, and Team Coordination in the Distributed Operation of Multiple Heterogeneous Unmanned Vehicles

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of team size, communication modality, and team role on measures of team process over time. As the use of semiautonomous, unmanned vehicles increases, it is pertinent to investigate issues associated with the human teams that will control them, including consideration of team roles and the design of systems to support these roles. Using a 1:35 scale facility for military operations in urban terrain, distributed teams of two or three operators used a simulated, unmanned aerial vehicle and a scaled, unmanned ground vehicle to complete two distinct phases of a mission. The teams used either audio or instant messaging for communication, and the analysis of communication assessed their discussion of target identification, target classification, object localization, and vehicle navigation. Findings indicate that the addition of a third teammate resulted in greater role specificity, and the use of audio increased communication of task-relevant content. The proper assignment of team roles can improve the ability of a team to both acquire and synthesize information from remote environments. Furthermore, proper system design can improve the flow of information between teammates over time.

The Influence of Team Size and Communication Modality on Team Effectiveness with Unmanned Systems

This study examines the effects of team size (2 versus 3 operators) and communication modality (audio versus text) on team performance. Performance and workload measures from 112 undergraduate students from the University of Central Florida were used in this analysis. Results indicated that performance was optimal for teams of three operators using audio systems for distributed communication. Results with the NASA TLX showed patterns where workload was lower in the audio condition. Results with the Multiple Resources Questionnaire (MRQ) showed a reversed trend with a higher score in the audio condition, which was attributed to increases in items associated with audio processing.

Interactive Effects of Backup Behavior and Spatial Abilities in the Prediction of Teammate Workload Using Multiple Unmanned Vehicles

This study examined the interactive effects of spatial ability and team process on operator workload, while using multiple unmanned vehicles. The hypotheses also focused on how these effects might change when using different measures of spatial ability. In order to examine this, the Guilford-Zimmerman Spatial Visualization and Spatial Orientation scores of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operator and navigation support provided by this UAV operator to an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) operator were used as variables predicting UGV operator workload while performing a reconnaissance task. Results indicated that the interaction of the “guiders” spatial visualization and navigation support and the interaction between spatial orientation and navigation support not only accounted for unique variances in the prediction of his/her teammates workload, but they also produced qualitatively different patterns of results. In identifying these unique contributions, the importance of using multiple spatial ability measures in (unmanned vehicle) research is highlighted.

The influence of camouflage, obstruction, familiarity and spatial ability on target identification from an unmanned ground vehicle

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of environmental and cognitive factors on the identification of targets from an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV). This was accomplished by manipulating obstruction, camouflage and familiarity of objects in the environment, while also measuring spatial ability. The effects of these variables on target identification were studied by measuring performance of participants that observed pre-recorded video from a 1:35 scaled military operations in urban terrain facility. Analyses indicated that a combination of camouflage and obstruction caused the most detrimental effects on performance, and that there were differences in the recognition of familiar and unfamiliar targets. Further analysis indicated that these detrimental effects could only be overcome with a combination of target familiarity and spatial ability. The findings highlight the degree to which environmental factors hinder performance and the need for a multidimensional approach for improving performance under these conditions. Areas in need of future research are also discussed. Practitioner Summary: Cognitive theory is applied to the problem of perception from UGVs. Results from an experimental study indicate that a combination of camouflage and obstruction caused the most detrimental effects on performance, with differences in the recognition of both familiar and unfamiliar targets. Familiarity and spatial ability interacted to predict the performance.

Beyond "spatial ability": examining the impact of multiple individual differences in a perception by proxy framework

Prior research has proposed the use of a Perception by Proxy framework that relies on human perception to support actions of autonomy. Given the importance of human perception, this framework highlights the need to understand how human cognitive abilities factor into the human-robot dynamic. The following paper uses a military reconnaissance task to examine how cognitive abilities interact with the gradual implementation of autonomy in a Perception by Proxy framework (i.e., autonomy to detect; autonomy to support rerouting) to predict three dimensions of sequential performance (i.e., speeded detection; target identification; rerouting). Results showed that, in addition to effects of autonomy and task setting, different individual abilities predicted unique aspects of performance. This highlights the need to broaden consideration of cognitive abilities in HRI.

The Effects of Autonomy and Cognitive Abilities on Workload and Supervisory Control of Unmanned Systems

In this paper, we examine the influence of autonomy and cognitive ability on workload in unmanned systems. First, we outline prior research regarding the role of autonomy and operator selection in decreasing workload in the realm of human-robot interaction. Next, we discuss two aspects of cognitive ability (i.e., visualization and perceptual speed) explain differences between these constructs, and their influence on workload. Then, we describe the current study and discuss the effects of varying levels of autonomy, visualization, and perceptual speed on workload in a simulated reconnaissance mission. Finally, we explore the implications of our findings in terms of the influence of autonomy and operator selection and provide suggestions for future research.

Indexing Spatial Ability Across Team Size The Influence of the Weakest Link, Strongest Link, and Aggregate Ability on Performance with Multiple Unmanned Systems

This study compared the effects of indexing individual differences in spatial ability and team size on performance with unmanned systems. The methods of indexing team spatial ability included measure of (a) the effects of the aggregate (mean), (b) the member that is the strongest link (has the maximum ability), and (c) the member that is the weakest link (has the minimum ability). These methods were considered in relation to the effects of team size. Results indicated that the method of indexing can moderate the strength of the relationship between spatial ability and performance. Interestingly, the impact of team size on a decision making task was moderated by spatial ability of the strongest link. Furthermore, the strongest link was also a greater predictor of reconnaissance than team size. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Familiarity and Expertise in the Recognition of Vehicles from an Unmanned Ground Vehicle

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of familiarity and expertise in remote perception from unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs). Fifty-two volunteers, of whom 23 were Army ROTC cadets, participated. They were first asked to identify vehicles on a written test, and scores from the test were used to predict the amount of information reported from a video recording, captured from a UGV camera, in a scaled MOUT facility. ROTC cadets are compared with the general subject pool in order to explore differences between civilian and military vehicle recognition. Results from a written vehicle recognition test indicate that all participants were most familiar with civilian vehicles and ROTC cadets were more familiar with military vehicles than the general population. Regression analyses revealed that both ROTC experience and vehicle familiarity were predictive of the amount of information correctly reported from the UGV camera video. We believe that training for expertise and motivation should be considered for future research.

The impact of type and level of automation on situation awareness and performance in human-robot interaction

In highly autonomous robotic systems, human operators are able to attend to their own, separate tasks, rather than directly operating the robot to accomplish their immediate task(s). At the same time, as operators attend to their own, separate tasks that do not directly involve the robotic system, they can end up lacking situation awareness (SA) when called on to recover from automation failure or from an unexpected event. In this paper, we describe the mechanisms of this problem, known as the out-of-the-loop performance problem, and describe why the problem may still exist in future robotic systems. Existing solutions to the problem, which focus on the level of automation, are reviewed. We describe our current empirical work, which aims to expand upon taxonomies of levels of automation to better understand how engineers of robotic systems may mitigate the problem.

Some Good and Bad with Spatial Ability in Three Person Teams That Operate Multiple Unmanned Vehicles

This study reports findings regarding the influence of spatial ability of each operator on a three person team on workload and performance. Sixty six participants were randomly assigned to the role of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operator, unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) operator, and intelligence officer (leader) to create a total of 22 teams, and spatial ability was assessed with Part 5 of the Guilford-Zimmerman Aptitude Survey. Findings indicated that spatial ability of the UAV operator and UGV operator improved reconnaissance, and while spatial ability of the UAV operator improved reacquisition of objectives after reconnaissance, spatial ability of the intelligence officer hindered team performance on this second task. A rationale for these results was developed with findings from the Multiple Resource Questionnaire (MRQ). Discussion focuses on the relationship between spatial ability and visual perception in complex teams.