Thomas G. Dunn

Deliberate practice in teaching: what teachers do for self-improvement

Abstract Two studies investigated teacher activities that may lead to the development of competence, if not expertise. In Study I, 136 teachers indicated in a questionnaire that evaluation and planning activities (informal and formal) best parallel deliberate practice activities that Ericsson and colleagues report as accounting for expertise in other domains. In Study II, log data and interviews from eight experienced teachers indicated that these activities provide opportunities for self-improvement even though that may not have been why teachers did them. The frequent and mindful engagement in these activities, prompting cycles of teaching – evaluation – revision, may be what accounts for expertise.

The Learning Process in Biofeedback: Is It Feed-Forward or Feedback?

Twenty participants responded to inquiries about strategies used, and thoughts during, each of three electromyograph biofeedback sessions. The purpose of the study was to learn more about what individuals report doing during biofeedback and, specifically, to determine if individuals construct a response using feedback to sense subtle differences in muscle tension (feedback processes), or select a response from an existing repertoire using feedback primarily for confirmation (feed-forward processes). Protocol analyses found considerable support for feed-forward processes and little support for feedback processes. Such results are important because early reliance on feedforward processes may result in limited control and limited transfer.

Cooperating Teacher Advice.

Abstract Four experienced and four new cooperating teachers tape-recorded meetings with their student teachers for 2 weeks. Protocols were analyzed for advice statements. There were 55.2% coded C onsultant — dealing with the present case and no elaboration, and 44.8% coded as T eacher — with some elaboration or explanation. Of Teacher advice statements, 84% included an elaboration or explanation, and 16% included reference to future cases within an elaboration. Regarding antecedents, 55.2% were solicited by student teacher question or comment, 37.1% by review and discussion of student teachers lesson plans, and 7.6% as unsolicited. While experienced cooperating teachers tended to provide more advice, percentages in the various categories were essentially similar for both new and experienced cooperating teachers.

Mastery learning: A psychological trap?

In spite of all its announced advantages, the implementation of mastery learning instruction often falls short of theoretical expectations. As discussed under the four major characteristics of mastery learning, these implementation weaknesses pose serious problems for unsuspecting students, teachers, and instructional designers alike.

Hierarchical structures in expert performance

This paper describes the use of learning-hierarchy analysis in studies of expertise. A hierarchical analysis was carried out on expertise in language-arts teacher planning for a short story. The resulting hierarchy depicted a complex pattern of prerequisite intellectual skills integrating knowledge of students, reading difficulty, strategies/activities, and the author (Stephen Crane). Of particular interest was that each branch of the hierarchy included “fuzzy sets,” that is, complex conceptual knowledge that experts were usually unable to explain. All elements in the hierarchy were capabilities learned from experience as opposed to direct instruction. It was recommended that advice-strategies developed from hierarchical analysis could be used to facilitate the development of expertise. These strategies do not teach expertise directly but encourage the learner to glean the most from task-relevant experience.

If we can't contextualize it, should we teach it?

Constructivists often present their ideas as the solution to most ills in education. Sometimes explicitly, but often implicitly, instructional systems design (ISD) is blamed for these ills. There is some irony to this as ISD advocates often lament the dearth of ISD in education. Be that as it may, ISD does have limitations and there is much to be learned from constructivism. However, is a paradigm switch the answer? This paper will take a different approach as it will indicate how ISD can help those who want to develop constructivist instruction. The ISD procedures involved in task/learning analyses and formative evaluation are presented as particularly beneficial.

Learning hierarchies and cognitive psychology: An important link for instructional psychology

Through his work on learning hierarchies and conditions of learning, Gagne has provided instructional designers with a rationale and procedures for determining what prerequisite knowledge is necessary to support present learning. However, factors related to complexity, inadequate theory and limited knowledge of competence, prevent the wide scale effective use of these procedures. Much of the research in cognitive psychology, specifically, schematic representation of knowledge and information processing analysis, may help in dealing with these factors. This is especially true for determining the nature of competence, which should precede the writing of clear unambigious behavioral objectives, which in turn are necessary before proceeding with hierarchical analyses. On the other hand, most of the research in cognitive psychology is decidedly basic in nature and it is suggested that combining a modified hierarchical analysis with the more cognitively oriented analysis procedures may accelerate the movement o...

An investigation of physician knowledge‐in‐action

Background: Teaching directly what physicians learn from experience may not be feasible; however, we need to know more about it. Purposes: To determine if physicians are aware of their knowledge‐in‐action, how and when it was learned, and if they view this knowledge as important for students and residents. Methods: Six physicians were videotaped examining a standardized patient complaining of chest pains and afterwards commented on their own performance in cued recall (Phase 1). Weeks later, they viewed a 3rd‐year student examining the same patient (Phase 2). Experimenters discussed the knowledge‐in‐action found in Phase 1 with physicians in Phase 2. Results: Physicians were often unaware of the automoticity with which they applied this knowledge but ususally decided that it would be important for their students and residents to learn. Conclusions: Identifying knowledge‐in‐action capabilities may help physicians focus advice and experiences for students.

Hierarchical Analysis of Learning Objectives in Economics.

Abstract Learning hierarchies are arrangements of intellectual skill objectives in a pattern of prerequisite relationships among cognitive processes. A simple learning hierarchy consisting of five objectives was hypothesized, developed and tested for instruction related to the concepts of supply and demand. The subjects in the study included 151 University of Toledo students in two economics classes. A method, “ordering theory,” for validating prerequisite relationships among 11 possible objective pairs rather than just those hypothesized to have such a relationship was used in the two classes. The two analyses yielded identical hierarchical relationships which were somewhat different than the hypothesized relationships. Both hierarchical analysis and ordering theory merit consideration and further study in economic and social education. Learning hierarchies and ordering theory analyses can aid instructors in: (1) pinpointing learner strengths and weaknesses, (2) focusing on the development of intellectua...

Policy and Practical Implications of Theoretical Innovations in Education

Publisher Summary Educational policy and educational theory frequently intersect in interesting and unpredictable ways. Ideas proposed by theorists are often popularized and woven into practice long before they have been refined, tested, or evaluated. Educational theorists also influence policies and practices in less formal ways. This chapter examines the formal and informal pathways by which educational theorizing affects what happens in classrooms, families, and contemporary American society. Because what occurs in classrooms is, to a great extent, influenced by what happens in a students home and family life, the effects of educational theorizing on home environment and parenting practices are also examined. The chapter also attempts to investigate the intersections between education and psychology in ways not often contemplated by the researchers or the policy analysts. For example, particular attention is given to potential undesirable effects on psychological characteristics, such as a students personal happiness brought about by otherwise desirable educational innovations and societal changes.