Thomas J. Martinek

An Investigation into Teaching Games for Understanding: Effects on Skill, Knowledge, and Game Play

The purpose of this study was to test the validity of the games for understanding model by comparing it to a technique approach to instruction and a control group. The technique method focused primarily on skill instruction where the skill taught initially was incorporated into a game at the end of each lesson. The games for understanding approach emphasized developing tactical awareness and decision making in small game situations. Two physical education specialists taught field hockey using these approaches for 15 lessons (45 min each). The control group did not receive any field hockey instruction. Data were collected from 71 middle school children. Pretests and posttests were administered for hockey knowledge, skill, and game performance. Separate analyses of variance or analyses of covariance were conducted to examine group differences for cognitive and skill outcomes. The games for understanding group scored significantly higher on passing decision making than the technique and control groups during posttest game play and significantly higher than the control group for declarative and procedural knowledge. The games for understanding group scored significantly higher on control and passing execution than the other groups during posttest game play. For hockey skill, there were no significant differences among the treatment groups for accuracy, but the technique group recorded faster times than the control group on the posttest.

Teaching for Understanding: A Model for Improving Decision Making During Game Play

A predominant area of instruction in school physical education programs is game play. Effective decision making is important to the successful execution of skills. Unfortunately, the task of teaching effective decision making in varying game situations is not easy. The demands of the game require far more than simply physical skillfulness. Game play is interwoven with numerous decision-making opportunities for the participant. Successful game players must make these decisions in an effective and timely manner. The purpose of this article is to compare two models of game instruction: the technique model and the “games for understanding” model. This analysis indicates that the games for understanding model provides a more viable way of teaching strategic decision making for game players. Included will be discussions on the various theories that contrast the two approaches. A final section provides suggestions for future research into the validity of the “games for understanding model.”

Fostering Resiliency in Underserved Youth Through Physical Activity

Millions of children and youth in our country live in poverty. And yet despite the overwhelming adversity associated with poverty, many of these youngsters are able to bounce back. The purpose of this article is to describe social and psychological factors that help them defy the risks associated with being poor. We suggest ways in which resiliency can be fostered through school and community programs. Included in this are ways in which physical activity serves as an effective medium for promoting growth and renewed optimism. Guidelines for delivering physical activity programs for increasing resiliency are proposed. In these guidelines are personal requirements necessary for successfully working with underserved children and youth.

Pygmalion in the Gym: A Model for the Communication of Teacher Expectations in Physical Education

Abstract Much research on teacher expectations has focused on ways in which teacher perceptions of student ability can ultimately affect student performance. The majority of this research has indicated that teacher expectations not only determine certain types of student performance, but also serve to sustain low and high levels of performance. Observational research has also demonstrated that differential teacher-student interactions are related to certain levels of teacher expectations. For example, it has been shown that high expectancy students receive more praise, acceptance of ideas, contact and wait time, and more response opportunities than low expectancy students. Much of this research has been generated from studies related to classroom instruction. Very little of this research, however, has been operational in the physical education setting. One reason for this is the absence of a model in physical education through which this type of research can be generated. This article presents such a mode...

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-CONCEPT: RACE AND AGE DIFFERENCES

To investigate the effect of organized physical activity on the development of specific motor skills (body coordination and self-concept) of elementary age children, 344 children from the ethnic origins, black and white, were administered the Schilling Body Coordination Test and the Mattinek-Zaichkowsky Self-concept Scale for Children. Motor development (body coordination) and self-concept scores were significantly higher for the group who participated in the physical activity program than for controls who did not. There was a linear trend in motor skill improvement, with Grades 2, 3, 4, and 5 showing significantly higher gains than Grade 1. The self-concept scores indicated a significant decline for Grades 3, 4, and 5. There were no significant differences between blacks and whites. A two-way interaction was found between grade and race in motor development, with blacks demonstrating lower mean scores than whites in Grade 2 but higher mean scores in Grade 5. Correlations between self-concept and motor development were non-significant.

Teacher expectations: effects on dyadic interactions and self-concept in elementary age children.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to describe the effects of teacher expectations on specific teacher-student behaviors occurring during physical education instruction. The study further described the effects of teacher expectations on the development of the students self-concept. Five elementary school teachers were asked to rate their students according to how they expected each to perform in terms of physical achievement. A total of 100 students, the highest 10 and the lowest 10, in each of the five classes, comprised the sample. All five teachers used in the study were experienced physical education teachers who had previous instructional experience with the children under observation. A dyadic version of Cheffers Adaptation of Flanders Interaction Analysis System was the observational tool used to identify the teacher-student behaviors. The Martinek-Zaichkowsky Self-Concept Scale for Children was used to determine whether there were self-concept differences between the two groups. The results o...

Youth Leaders' Perceptions of Commitment to a Responsibility-Based Physical Activity Program.

This study extended Schillings (2001) study by investigating program commitment among a larger (N = 12), older (M = 16.7 years), and more experienced (M = 5.96 years) sample of participants in the Project Effort Youth Leader Corps. Individual interviews elicited a greater number and specificity of themes. Program-related barriers included logistics, structure, and relationships, and personal-related barriers included perceived alternatives, personal characteristics, and “real-life” responsibilities. Similar to Schillings (2001) earlier study, antecedents grouped under program environment, program structure, relationships, and personal characteristics. Participants also described outcomes in terms of behavior and emotional involvement but reported more themes related to leadership. Results are discussed in terms of consistencies and changes over time and implications for program development, expansion, and evaluation.

Decision-Making in Elementary Age Children: Effects on Motor Skills and Self-Concept

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of vertical and horizontal teaching models on the development of specific motor skills and self-concept in elementary-aged children. The treatment group consisted of 230 Boston school children, grades one through five, who participated either in a physical activity program in which the teacher made all the decisions (vertical model) or in a program in which they shared in the decision-making process (horizontal model). An additional 115 elementary school children were used as a control group. The Cheffers Adaptation of Flanders Interaction Analysis System was used to verify the two treatments used in the study. The Body Coordination Test was used to test motor skill development, and the Martinek-Zaichkowsky Self-Concept Scale for Children was used to measure self-concept. Results indicated that a teacher-directed approach appears to be best for the development of motor skills and that a student-sharing approach has a definite positive effect ...

Service-Bonded Inquiry Revisited: A Research Model for the Community-Engaged Professor

The intent of this article is to inform readers about ways in which scholarly inquiry can be expanded. An overview and a refinement of a research approach called service-bonded inquiry are provided. Service-bonded inquiry is a response to the call for changing the way research is interpreted, conducted, and evaluated. At the heart of this approach is the integration of service and scholarship. Service-bonded inquiry attempts to equip community-engaged professors with a framework for answering the many questions generated from working in school and service programs and engaging in the lives of kids. First, a description of service-bonded inquiry is given along with the required steps for doing this type of research. Next, an example of a study that applies the concepts of service-bonded inquiry is provided. Finally, ways that by-products of service-bonded inquiry can be evaluated are suggested.

Understanding the Transfer of Values-Based Youth Sport Program Goals From a Bioecological Perspective

The recent increase of after-school programming for underserved youth has included research on values-based physical activity programs. Discovering how these programs work and learning the extent of their short- and long-term impact appear to be the centerpieces of many of these studies. One model that has received considerable attention is Hellisons Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR), the ultimate aim of which is to transfer responsibility goals to other contexts. The purpose of this article is to provide a framework to understand the transfer of values-based youth program goals by applying a bioecological theory of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). First, we review this theory by focusing on the four components of the Process-Person-Context-Time model. Second, we present a review of TPSR program evaluation studies based on the bioecological model of value-transfer in youth sport programs. Finally, we provide implications for future program development and research.