Thomas J. Scheff

Emotions and Violence: Shame and Rage in Destructive Conflicts.

This text examines the causes of violence and destructive conflict through an exploration of human interaction in situations ranging from a psychotherapy session and marital quarrels to television game shows.

Shame and the Social Bond: A Sociological Theory

Emotion has long been recognized in sociology as crucially important, but most references to it are generalized and vague. In this essay, I nominate shame, specifically, as the premier social emotion. First I review the individualized treatment of shame in psychoanalysis and psychology, and the absence of social context. Then I consider the contributions to the social dimensions of shame by six sociologists (Georg Simmel, Charles Cooley, Norbert Elias, Richard Sennett, Helen Lynd, Erving Goffman) and a psychologist/psychoanalyst (Helen Lewis). I show that Cooley and Lynd, particularly, made contributions to a theory of shame and the social bond. Lewiss idea that shame arises from threats to the bond integrates the contributions of all six sociologists, and points toward future research on emotion, conflict, and alienation/integration.

Negotiating Reality: Notes on Power in the Assessment of Responsibility

This paper illustrates the difference between absolute and social conceptions of responsibility, by employing the perspective of the sociology of knowledge. Comparing the degree of shared awareness and the organization of the format of the transaction in initial psychiatric and legal interviews, propositions showing the relationship between the power and authority of the interactants, and the resultant shared definition of the clients responsibility, are suggested. The implications of these points for psychiatric and legal policy, and for social science research are discussed in the conclusion.

The Structure of Context: Deciphering Frame Analysis*

This article proposes that Goffmans Frame Analysis can be interpreted as a step toward unpacking the idea of context. His analysis implies a recursive model involving frames within frames. The key problem is that neither Goffman nor anyone else has clearly defined what is meant by a frame. I propose that it can be represented by a word, phrase, or proposition. A subjective context can be represented as an assembly of these items, joined together by operators such as and, since, if, not, and then. Furthermore, this model can be combined with the recursive levels of mutual awareness in earlier approaches to consensus. The combination would represent the intersubjective context: it can be used to find the minimum amount of background that would allow consensual interpretations of discourse. It could also construct a chain that links discourse to the institutional level, the micro-macro pathway from word and gesture to social structure. Goffman hinted that mathematical notation might be used to represent a frame assembly. By adding levels of awareness to such notation, it could represent social facts. Because the use of vernacular words rather than concepts is a problem in social science, Goffmans approach has a general as well as a particular significance.

Shame and the Social Bond

This article proposes that shame may be the hidden key to understanding our civilization, in the sense that shame or its anticipation is virtually ubiquitous, yet, at the same time, usually invisible. C.H. Cooleys idea of the looking glass self implies that shame and pride can be seen as signals of the state of the social bond. Theoretical work by Cooley and Erving Goffman imply ubiquity, and empirical studies by Norbert Elias and Helen Lewis provide support. The findings of Elias and Lewis also suggest that shame is usually invisible; Elias stated this proposition explicitly. Like other emotions, such as fear, shame can be recursive, acting back on itself (shame about shame). In unusual circumstances, limitless recursion of shame may explain extreme cases of silence or violence.

Male Emotions/Relationships and Violence: A Case Study

In this article, a theory of the emotional/relational origins of male violence is outlined, and illustrated by episodes in Hitlers life. Drawing on earlier work on aggression and violence, it is proposed that three conditions lead to rage and violence: (i) no affectional attachments, (ii) a single overarching obsession, and (iii) the complete repression of shame. Only to the extent that all three of these conditions are fully met is destructive violence likely. Although women in whom these three conditions were present would be as likely as men to commit violent acts, men qualify much more frequently and fully than women. Key features of the theory are illustrated by applying it to details in biographies of Hitler. This case suggests a way in which emotions unite leaders and led, leading to collective violence. Finally, a method that would provide a preliminary test of the theory is suggested.

Social Conditions for Rationality: How Urban and Rural Courts Deal with the Mentally Ill:

A study of cioil coiirt procediires iit niakiiig clccisioiis aboiit the coiniiiitmeiit of the incntallg ill srrggcsts that urban coiirt procediires are largely ceremonial, icliilc riiral corirts approach substantial ratioiialitg. Fioc conditions that faoor rationality arc idciitificd, ioitli their iiiiplicatiotis for decision-inakiiig iiz otlier areas. Professor Sclieff is n nzeinbcr of the dcparltiieiit of sociologg at tlie Uiiivcrsity of California, Santn Barbara.

A theory of catharsis

Abstract This paper first discusses the history of the idea of catharsis, suggesting that the differences between the advocates of catharsis and its critics may be reconcilable. A definition of emotion is proposed which involves interactions between biological, psychological, and social systems. This definition gives rise to a theory of catharsis which seems to reconcile the claims of the advocates of catharsis with the criticisms that have been made of their claims. The discussion of the theory also suggests methods of testing it. As a preliminary example of one such test, the results of a pilot study of the effects of laughter on tension levels are presented.

A social/emotional theory of ‘mental illness’

One reason that theories of mental illness have made little progress may be their focus on individuals, omitting the social/relational and emotional world. Adding these components will be difficult, however: in modern societies they have become virtually invisible, particularly the emotion of shame. The theory outlined here is based on the work of Cooley, Elias, Lewis and Goffman: shame is both social and individual and, if anticipation is included, virtually omnipresent in modern societies. It is proposed that most symptoms of mental illness are products of shame and relational feedback loops: emotion and alienation can both spiral leading to further alienation and chaotic or hidden emotions. Almost everyone is especially ashamed of their shame. Being ashamed of one’s shame and/or anger can spiral when not acknowledged. Under certain conditions, these spirals continue without limit, generating immense force for acting out symptoms or depression. To the extent that this theory is true, we would need to rename the field using non-medical terms, such as emotional/social dysfunction.

Cognitive and Emotional Conflict in Anorexia: Reanalysis of a Classic Case

This paper outlines a theory of the causation of anorexia. Extending Lewiss work on shame, I propose that anorexia involves an interminable quarrel between patient and family. This quarrel is caused by unacknowledged shame, leading to chain reactions of emotion, sequences of shame and rage. To illustrate, I use an earlier case study, a microanalysis of dialogue in a psychotherapy session. This study provided an analysis of the cognitive structure of the quarrel but not of the emotional structure. The proposed theory complements and extends the earlier study, and suggests a treatment rationale and method.