Thomas L. McKenzie

The effects of a 2-year physical education program (SPARK) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school students. Sports, Play and Active Recreation for Kids.

OBJECTIVES This study evaluated a health-related physical education program for fourth- and fifth-grade students designed to increase physical activity during physical education classes and outside of school. METHODS Seven schools were assigned to three conditions in a quasi-experimental design. Health-related physical education was taught by physical education specialists or trained classroom teachers. Students from these classes were compared with those in control classes. Analyses were conducted on 955 students with complete data. RESULTS Students spent more minutes per week being physically active in specialist-led (40 min) and teacher-led (33 min) physical education classes than in control classes (18 min; P < .001). After 2 years, girls in the specialist-led condition were superior to girls in the control condition on abdominal strength and endurance (P < .001) and cardiorespiratory endurance (P < .001). There were no effects on physical activity outside of school. CONCLUSIONS A health-related physical education curriculum can provide students with substantially more physical activity during physical education classes. Improved physical education classes can potentially benefit 97% of elementary school students.

Physical Education's Role in Public Health

The public health community is becoming increasingly interested in the potential contributions of school physical education to child health. School physical education is seen as an ideal site for the promotion of regular physical activity because up to 97% of elementary school children participate in some sort of physical education program. For maximal public health benefit, school physical education programs should prepare children for a lifetime of physical activity. This public health goal for physical education may require some changes in current approaches. Physical educators are challenged to collaborate with public health professionals in developing and evaluating school physical education programs that will improve the health of the nations youth.

Contribution of Public Parks to Physical Activity

OBJECTIVES Parks provide places for people to experience nature, engage in physical activity, and relax. We studied how residents in low-income, minority communities use public, urban neighborhood parks and how parks contribute to physical activity. METHODS In 8 public parks, we used direct observation to document the number, gender, race/ethnicity, age group, and activity level of park users 4 times per day, 7 days per week. We also interviewed 713 park users and 605 area residents living within 2 miles of each park. RESULTS On average, over 2000 individuals were counted in each park, and about two thirds were sedentary when observed. More males than females used the parks, and males were twice as likely to be vigorously active. Interviewees identified the park as the most common place they exercised. Both park use and exercise levels of individuals were predicted by proximity of their residence to the park. CONCLUSIONS Public parks are critical resources for physical activity in minority communities. Because residential proximity is strongly associated with physical activity and park use, the number and location of parks are currently insufficient to serve local populations well.

Environmental Interventions for Eating and Physical Activity A Randomized Controlled Trial in Middle Schools

BACKGROUND Our objective was to evaluate the effects of environmental, policy, and social marketing interventions on physical activity and fat intake of middle school students on campus. DESIGN Twenty-four middle schools were randomly assigned to intervention or control conditions. Baseline measures were collected in spring 1997, and interventions were conducted during the 1997-1998 and 1998-1999 school years SETTING/PARTICIPATION: The schools had mean enrollments of 1109, with 44.5% nonwhite students. Over 2 years, physical activity interventions were designed to increase physical activity in physical education classes and throughout the school day. Nutrition interventions were designed to provide and market low-fat foods at all school food sources, including cafeteria breakfasts and lunches, a la carte sources, school stores, and bag lunches. School staff and students were engaged in policy change efforts, but there was no classroom health education. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES Primary outcomes were measured by direct observation and existing records. RESULTS Randomized regression models (N =24 schools) revealed a significant intervention effect for physical activity for the total group (p <0.009) and boys (p <0.001), but not girls (p <0.40). The intervention was not effective for total fat (p <0.91) or saturated fat (p <0.79). Survey data indicated that the interventions reduced reported body mass index for boys (p <0.05). CONCLUSIONS Environmental and policy interventions were effective in increasing physical activity at school among boys but not girls. The interventions were not effective in reducing fat intake at school. School environmental and policy interventions have the potential to improve health behavior of the student population, but barriers to full implementation need to be better understood and overcome.

Effects of physical activity interventions in youth. Review and synthesis

INTRODUCTION Physical inactivity has been identified as an important public health concern for youth. School and community settings can be important infrastructures for promoting physical activity (PA). This paper reviews studies of physical activity in school and community settings among preschool through college-aged persons to determine characteristics and effects of interventions. Studies in progress are included. METHODS Studies from 1980 to 1997 testing physical activity interventions in schools and community settings were identified by computerized search methods and reference lists of published reviews. Studies needed to have used a quantitative assessment of PA, used a comparison or control group, included participants who were preschool through college age, and be conducted in the United States or foreign school or community settings. Significance of effects was examined overall and for various types of interventions. RESULTS Twenty-two school-based studies were reviewed, 14 completed and 8 in progress. Three studies were in countries other than the United States. The 8 studies in progress were all in the United States. Only 7 community studies were reviewed, all in the United States. Four studies were in progress. Several community studies involved a high percentage of African-American or Hispanic youth and their families. Studies showing the best results used randomized designs, valid and reliable measurements, and more extensive interventions. Some follow-up results showed PA was sustained after interventions ended. CONCLUSIONS The collection of school and community studies is limited for several age groups with none below third grade and only three at college age. There are few community studies. The most is known about upper-elementary-age-students, including the first multicenter randomized trial to report significant results for increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in physical education (PE) and increase vigorous PA outside of school. A number of older study designs were weak and assessments less than optimal, but studies in progress are stronger. Special attention is needed for girls, middle schools, and community settings for all youth. More objective assessments are needed for measuring PA outside of school and in younger children, since they cannot provide reliable self-report.

The association of school environments with youth physical activity.

OBJECTIVES This study assessed the association of school environmental characteristics with student physical activity on campus. METHODS Physical activity areas (n = 137) at 24 public middle schools were assessed for area type, size, and improvements (e.g., basketball courts). Student physical activity and the presence of equipment and supervision were directly observed before school, after lunch, and after school. RESULTS Environmental characteristics explained 42% of the variance in the proportion of girls who were physically active and 59% of the variance for boys. CONCLUSIONS School environments with high levels of supervision and improvements stimulated girls and boys to be more physically active.

Correlates of physical activity at home in Mexican-American and Anglo-American preschool children.

Twenty-two potential correlates of childrens physical activity were examined. Two hundred and one Mexican-American and 146 Anglo-American families with 4-year-old children were studied. Childrens physical activity was directly observed in the evening at home on 4 visits for 1 hr each time. Anglo-American children and male children were found to be more active. Demographic variables explained 11% of the variance in childrens physical activity. After adjusting for demographics, 3 childrens variables and 6 social-family variables did not account for significantly more variance. Five environmental variables accounted for 11% additional variance. Variables observed concurrently with physical activity, such as time spent outdoors and prompts to be active, were highly associated with childrens physical activity.

Evaluating Evaluations: The Case of Parent Involvement Programs

This article analyzes 41 studies that evaluated K–12 parent involvement programs in order to assess claims that such programs are an effective means of improving student learning. It examines the characteristics of the parent involvement programs, as well as the research design, data, and analytical techniques used in program evaluation. Our examination of evaluations found little empirical support for the widespread claim that parent involvement programs are an effective means of improving student achievement or changing parent, teacher, and student behavior. We do not conclude that programs are ineffective. Rather, serious design, methodological, and analytical flaws inherent in studies evaluating the effectiveness of parent involvement programs must be addressed before definite conclusions about program effectiveness can be reached. The findings of this study are particularly significant given the substantial federal support for parent involvement.

Physical Activity InterventionsEffects of physical activity interventions in youth: Review and synthesis

INTRODUCTION Physical inactivity has been identified as an important public health concern for youth. School and community settings can be important infrastructures for promoting physical activity (PA). This paper reviews studies of physical activity in school and community settings among preschool through college-aged persons to determine characteristics and effects of interventions. Studies in progress are included. METHODS Studies from 1980 to 1997 testing physical activity interventions in schools and community settings were identified by computerized search methods and reference lists of published reviews. Studies needed to have used a quantitative assessment of PA, used a comparison or control group, included participants who were preschool through college age, and be conducted in the United States or foreign school or community settings. Significance of effects was examined overall and for various types of interventions. RESULTS Twenty-two school-based studies were reviewed, 14 completed and 8 in progress. Three studies were in countries other than the United States. The 8 studies in progress were all in the United States. Only 7 community studies were reviewed, all in the United States. Four studies were in progress. Several community studies involved a high percentage of African-American or Hispanic youth and their families. Studies showing the best results used randomized designs, valid and reliable measurements, and more extensive interventions. Some follow-up results showed PA was sustained after interventions ended. CONCLUSIONS The collection of school and community studies is limited for several age groups with none below third grade and only three at college age. There are few community studies. The most is known about upper-elementary-age-students, including the first multicenter randomized trial to report significant results for increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in physical education (PE) and increase vigorous PA outside of school. A number of older study designs were weak and assessments less than optimal, but studies in progress are stronger. Special attention is needed for girls, middle schools, and community settings for all youth. More objective assessments are needed for measuring PA outside of school and in younger children, since they cannot provide reliable self-report.

System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC): Reliability and Feasibility Measures.

BACKGROUND New tools are needed to examine physical activity and the contexts in which it occurs. Community parks contribute to physical activity, but measuring activity and associated variables in them is challenging because area contexts change and the numbers and characteristics of users are highly variable. METHODS We developed SOPARC (System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities) and tested its use by observing 16,244 individuals in 165 park areas. Reliabilities included 472 simultaneous measures by independent observers. RESULTS Correlations between observers on number of area participants was 0.99 for female and male park users. Reliabilities (i.e., percent agreement) for age (89%, females; 85%, males), race/ethnic (80%, females; 82%, males), and activity level (80%, females; 88%, males) groupings met acceptable criteria. Reliabilities for area contexts (i.e., usable, accessible, supervised, organized, equipped) exceeded 94%. CONCLUSIONS SOPARC is a reliable and feasible instrument for assessing physical activity and associated contextual data in community settings.