Thomas M. Duffy

Finding information on a menu: linking menu organization to the user's goals

Design paradigms often ignore the diverse goals users bring to the computer interface. Any human-computer interaction can be viewed as a marriage of two systems: The user begins the interaction by formulating an information goal, and the computer software meets that goal with a sometimes complex list of potential topic areas. The user then accesses that topic list through the computer interface. Part of the act of accessing the topic list is selecting a potential topic, and this action is often supported by a menu interface. Although research is pervasive on how best to organize menu items to facilitate learning, search speed, and reduced selection errors, little has been done to examine the impact of different types of user goals or cues on a menus effectiveness. In a study using three distinct cues-direct match, synonym, and iconic - and two menu organizations - alphabetical and functional-data suggest that (a) the functional menu is more effective than the alphabetical menu for the synonym and iconic cues, (b) learning occurs with both menu designs (i.e., selection speed increases rapidly across the five trial blocks), and (c) users make fewer errors with the functionally organized menu. The results, in general, encourage more rigorous investigation of the interaction between the tasks users bring to menu interfaces and the optimal design of those menus.

Connecting online learners with diverse local practices: the design of effective common reference points for conversation

This mixed‐methods study probed the effectiveness of three kinds of objects (video, theory, metaphor) as common reference points for conversations between online learners (student teachers). Individuals’ degree of detail‐focus was examined as a potentially interacting covariate and the outcome measure was learners’ level of tacit knowledge related to their practice (teaching). Analysis was conducted using hierarchical linear modeling and significant results were followed up with a qualitative theme analysis. An interaction between reference point type and detail‐focus was found, demonstrating a positive effect of detail‐focus within the metaphor condition. Unexpectedly, some participants interpreted the metaphors in ways other than those intended, leading to differences in the kinds of understandings developed. The study indicated that a conceptual frame is an important characteristic of a reference point that will be truly taken in common, and that metaphors need additional framing to be viable in this role. Implications for online learning conversation design are discussed.

When a Peer Group Isn't Needed: Effective Online Learning in an Individual Mentoring Model

In this chapter, we discuss the design and refinement of the Learning to Teach with Technology Studio, an online professional development environment for teachers who are interested in learning how to use technology to support inquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning. We specifically focus on our initial design commitments of flexibility and relevancy and how they were embodied in the system. We examine the iterations made to the system in response to our design-based research efforts and explore the implications of our research on our beliefs about the role of collaboration in learning in online environments.

Expanding beyond a cognitivist framework

One of the looming challenges educators face today is understanding how student diversity and uniqueness impacts the complex process of learning. Affective and conative factors are increasingly examined as we seek to understand how to teach and support the whole learner. The goal is to build theory that informs practice so that we may, as Martinez argues, move beyond “fuzzy, one-size-fi tsall [instructional] solutions” to instruction that is designed to match individual learning needs. Factors such as motivation (McCombs, 1991, Deci and Ryan, 1991), self-effi cacy (Bandura, 1986), learning styles (Rayner and Riding, 1997), and emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1996) have become increasingly common terms in educational research as we seek to defi ne affective and conative variables that impact the learning process as well as design of instruction. However, as with much of educational research, there are a vast number of complex, interrelated variables to consider and no one easy solution. After examining Martinez’s web site (see http://mse.byu.edu/projects/elc/ilsum.htm#loc), we found that she builds on the work of several educational researchers, including Bandura, Scardamelia and Bereiter, McCombs, Snow, Pintrich, and others in order to build a set of metalevel profi les of learner differences. These profi les differentiate types of learners in order to understand the infl uence of emotions and intentions on learning. The goal of Martinez’s theory is to match an individual learner’s orientation to an appropriate learning environment. Though Martinez’s goal for understanding learner needs and supporting those needs through instruction is a worthy one, there are several major issues with the implementation of intentional learning theory in this particular study. After addressing these issues, we will discuss implications as well as remaining questions we have based upon our perspective as constructivists and instructional designers.