Thomas M. Gernon

Eruptive history of an alkali basaltic diatreme from Elie Ness, Fife, Scotland

The Elie Ness diatreme (Fife, Scotland) is an ideal place to study the internal architecture and emplacement processes of diatremes. Elie Ness is one of approximately 100 alkali basaltic diatremes and intrusions in the East Fife area, emplaced during Upper Carboniferous to Early Permian times into an extensive rift system in the northern Variscan foreland. Within the diatreme, seven lithofacies and three lithofacies associations (LFAs 1–3) are recognised. Field, petrographic and geochemical studies demonstrate that the diatreme experienced a protracted history of eruption and infill, initially driven by volatile expansion and later by magma–water interaction. Massive lapilli tuffs of LFA 1 contain abundant highly vesicular juvenile scoria and magma-coated clasts, which are best explained by a magmatic origin for the early explosive eruptions. On a large-scale, the tuffs are well mixed and locally exhibit small-scale degassing structures attributed to fluidisation processes occurring within the diatreme fill. The occurrence of abundant volcaniclastic autoliths and megablocks within LFA 1 can be explained by subsidence of volcaniclastic strata from the maar crater and upper diatreme during emplacement. Pyroclastic density current deposits of LFA 2 form a series of continuous sheets across the diatreme, some of which may have originated from phreatomagmatic explosions in a neighbouring vent. We attribute the overall bedding pattern to a combination of primary volcanic processes and post-depositional folding related to movement along an adjacent fault. Minor steeply inclined breccias and tuffs of LFA 3 cross-cut the LFA 2 succession and are interpreted as late-stage volcaniclastic dykes and conduits, signalling the final phase of eruptive activity at Elie Ness. The study offers new insights into the volcanic evolution of diatremes fed by low viscosity, alkali-rich magmas.

Chapter 20 Multi-stage collapse events in the South Soufrière Hills, Montserrat as recorded in marine sediment cores

Abstract We present new evidence for sector collapses of the South Soufrière Hills (SSH) edifice, Montserrat during the mid-Pleistocene. High-resolution geophysical data provide evidence for sector collapse, producing an approximately 1 km3 submarine collapse deposit to the south of SSH. Sedimentological and geochemical analyses of submarine deposits sampled by sediment cores suggest that they were formed by large multi-stage flank failures of the subaerial SSH edifice into the sea. This work identifies two distinct geochemical suites within the SSH succession on the basis of trace-element and Pb-isotope compositions. Volcaniclastic turbidites in the cores preserve these chemically heterogeneous rock suites. However, the subaerial chemostratigraphy is reversed within the submarine sediment cores. Sedimentological analysis suggests that the edifice failures produced high-concentration turbidites and that the collapses occurred in multiple stages, with an interval of at least 2 ka between the first and second failure. Detailed field and petrographical observations, coupled with SEM image analysis, shows that the SSH volcanic products preserve a complex record of magmatic activity. This activity consisted of episodic explosive eruptions of andesitic pumice, probably triggered by mafic magmatic pulses and followed by eruptions of poorly vesiculated basaltic scoria, and basaltic lava flows. Supplementary material: All geochemical data tables, including locations for all subaerial and submarine samples are available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18709.

Geology of the Snap Lake kimberlite intrusion, Northwest Territories, Canada: field observations and their interpretation

The Cambrian (523 Ma) Snap Lake hypabyssal kimberlite intrusion, Northwest Territories, Canada, is a complex segmented diamond-bearing ore-body. Detailed geological investigations suggest that the kimberlite is a multi-phase intrusion with at least four magmatic lithofacies. In particular, olivine-rich (ORK) and olivine-poor (OPK) varieties of hypabyssal kimberlite have been identified. Key observations are that the olivine-rich lithofacies has a strong tendency to be located where the intrusion is thickest and that there is a good correlation between intrusion thickness, olivine crystal size and crystal content. Heterogeneities in the lithofacies are attributed to variations in intrusion thickness and structural complexities. The geometry and distribution of lithofacies points to magmatic co-intrusion, and flow segregation driven by fundamental rheological differences between the two phases. We envisage that the low-viscosity OPK magma acted as a lubricant for the highly viscous ORK magma. The presence of such low-viscosity, crystal-poor magmas may explain how crystal-laden kimberlite magmas (>60 vol.%) are able to reach the surface during kimberlite eruptions. We also document the absence of crystal settling and the development of an unusual subvertical fabric of elongate olivine crystals, which are explained by rapid degassing-induced quench crystallization of the magmas during and after intrusion. Supplementary material: Additional figures are available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18503.

The relationship between eruptive activity, flank collapse, and sea level at volcanic islands: a long-term (>1 Ma) record offshore Montserrat, Lesser Antilles

Hole U1395B, drilled southeast of Montserrat during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 340, provides a long (>1 Ma) and detailed record of eruptive and mass-wasting events (>130 discrete events). This record can be used to explore the temporal evolution in volcanic activity and landslides at an arc volcano. Analysis of tephra fall and volcaniclastic turbidite deposits in the drill cores reveals three heightened periods of volcanic activity on the island of Montserrat (?930 ka to ?900 ka, ?810 ka to ?760 ka, and ?190 ka to ?120 ka) that coincide with periods of increased volcano instability and mass-wasting. The youngest of these periods marks the peak in activity at the Soufriere Hills volcano. The largest flank collapse of this volcano (?130 ka) occurred towards the end of this period, and two younger landslides also occurred during a period of relatively elevated volcanism. These three landslides represent the only large (>0.3 km3) flank collapses of the Soufriere Hills edifice, and their timing also coincides with periods of rapid sea-level rise (>5 m/ka). Available age data from other island arc volcanoes suggests a general correlation between the timing of large landslides and periods of rapid sea-level rise, but this is not observed for volcanoes in intra-plate ocean settings. We thus infer that rapid sea-level rise may modulate the timing of collapse at island arc volcanoes, but not in larger ocean-island settings.

Effect of Sediment Properties on the Thermal Performance of Submarine HV Cables

The thermal performance of high-voltage submarine cables is controlled by the effectiveness of heat transfer through the sediments in which they are buried. This paper assesses the influence of sediment parameters on this heat transfer using finite-element simulations. Particular attention is paid to the role of convective heat transfer, with a method being developed to define installation scenarios where this may become significant. This paper shows that the permeability is the dominant factor and can have a significant impact on cable temperatures, even though it is typically neglected in conventional models.

The Catanda extrusive carbonatites (Kwanza Sul, Angola): an example of explosive carbonatitic volcanism

Carbonatite lavas and pyroclastic rocks are exposed in the volcanic graben of Catanda and represent the only known example of extrusive carbonatites in Angola. A new detailed geological map of the area is presented in this study as well as six different stratigraphic sections. Pyroclastic rocks, apparently unwelded, are dominant in the area and represented in all the stratigraphic columns. They form shallowly to moderately inclined layers, mostly devoid of internal structures, that range in thickness from several centimetres to metres. They are dominantly lapilli tuffs and minor tuffs occasionally comprising pelletal lapilli. Based on their different features and field relationships, at least five different pyroclastic lithofacies have been distinguished in the area. Carbonatitic lavas outcrop in the external parts of the Catanda graben, forming coherent layers interbedded with pyroclastic rocks. Calcite is the most common mineral in the lavas, but other accessory minerals such as fluorapatite, titaniferous magnetite, phlogopite, pyrochlore, baddeleyite, monticellite, perovskite, cuspidine and periclase have also been identified. At least four different types of lavas have been distinguished based on their mineral associations and textural features. This study reveals an overall abundance of pyroclastic material in comparison to lava flows in the Catanda area, suggesting that eruptive processes were dominated by explosive activity similar to what has been described in other carbonatite and kimberlite localities. The Catanda carbonatitic volcanism was associated with monogenetic volcanic edifices with tuff ring or maar morphologies, and at least seven possible eruptive centres have been identified in the area.

Oklahoma's induced seismicity strongly linked to wastewater injection depth

Injection depth matters for induced earthquakes Wastewater injection has induced earthquakes in Oklahoma, but the relative importance of operational and geologic parameters in triggering such earthquakes is unclear. Hincks et al. developed an advanced Bayesian network to determine the interplay between these parameters in Oklahoma. The injection depth above the crystalline basement was the most important parameter when considering the potential for release of seismic energy. This modeling strategy may provide a way to improve forecasts of the impact of proposed regulatory changes on induced seismicity. Science, this issue p. 1251 A Bayesian network approach implicates well depth as the most important operational factor for induced earthquakes. The sharp rise in Oklahoma seismicity since 2009 is due to wastewater injection. The role of injection depth is an open, complex issue, yet critical for hazard assessment and regulation. We developed an advanced Bayesian network to model joint conditional dependencies between spatial, operational, and seismicity parameters. We found that injection depth relative to crystalline basement most strongly correlates with seismic moment release. The joint effects of depth and volume are critical, as injection rate becomes more influential near the basement interface. Restricting injection depths to 200 to 500 meters above basement could reduce annual seismic moment release by a factor of 1.4 to 2.8. Our approach enables identification of subregions where targeted regulation may mitigate effects of induced earthquakes, aiding operators and regulators in wastewater disposal regions.

Discovery of a large 2.4 Ma Plinian eruption of Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe, from the marine sediment record

Large volcanic eruptions are major geohazards, so identifying their frequency in the geologic record is critical for making predictions and hazard assessments. Following the discovery of a thick (18 cm) tephra layer in marine sediments from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Site U1396 between Montserrat and Guadeloupe in the Caribbean Sea, we document here how high-precision Pb isotopes, trace elements, and grain morphological analyses of the tephra can be used, together with volcanological models, to identify a large (Volcanic Explosivity Index ?6) Plinian eruption from Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe, at ca. 2.36 Ma. This previously unrecognized eruption is believed to be the largest documented volcanic event in this region since this time. We hypothesize that this large eruption was associated with the final stage in the evolution of an individual volcanic center, which has implications for prediction of geohazards in this setting.

Basaltic maar-diatreme volcanism in the Lower Carboniferous of the Limerick Basin (SW Ireland)

Lead-zinc exploration drilling within the Limerick Basin (SW Ireland) has revealed the deep internal architecture and extra-crater deposits of five alkali-basaltic maar-diatremes. These were emplaced as part of a regional north-east south-west tectonomagmatic trend during the Lower Carboniferous Period. Field relationships and textural observations suggest that the diatremes erupted into a shallow submarine environment. Limerick trace element data indicates a genetic relationship between the diatremes and extra-crater successions of the Knockroe Formation, which records multiple diatreme filling and emptying cycles. Deposition was controlled largely by bathymetry defined by the surrounding Waulsortian carbonate mounds. An initial non-diatreme forming eruption stage occurred at the water-sediment interface, with magma-water interaction prevented by high magma ascent rates. This was followed by seawater incursion and the onset of phreatomagmatic activity. Magma-water interaction generated poorly vesicular blocky clasts, although the co-occurrence of plastically deformed and highly vesicular clasts indicate that phreatomagmatic and magmatic processes were not mutually exclusive. At a later stage, the diatreme filled with a slurry of juvenile lapilli and country rock lithic clasts, homogenised by the action of debris jets. The resulting extra-crater deposits eventually emerged above sea level, so that water ingress significantly declined, and late-stage magmatic processes became dominant. These deposits, largely confined to the deep vents, incorporate high concentrations of partially sintered globular and large ‘raggy’ lapilli showing evidence for heat retention. Our study provides new insights into the dynamics and evolution of basaltic diatremes erupting into a shallow water (20–120 m) submarine environment.

Emplacement of the Cabezo María lamproite volcano (Miocene, SE Spain)

Lamproite volcanoes are uncommon in the geological record but are exceptionally well preserved in the Betic Cordilleras of SE Spain, where they erupted during the Late Miocene (Tortonian to Messinian stages). The parent melts are thought to have been channelled through major lithospheric faults to erupt at or near the faulted margins of Neogene sedimentary basins. Lamproite magmas are thought to be relatively CO2-poor (<1 wt %) and are typically characterised by an effusive eruption style and the development of lava lakes and scoria cones. Cabezo María is a relatively small (∼550 m diameter) lamproite volcano that was emplaced within the shallow-water marine-influenced Vera Basin. The lamproites are compositionally similar to those of the Roman Province and generally less potassic (K2O<5 wt%) than other (ultra-) potassic rocks in SE Spain (e.g. Cancarix, Fortuna). The initial eruption stages were dominated by explosive magma-water interactions and the formation of peperites. These are characterised by angular fragments of glassy lamproite lavas (and isolated lobes) incorporated in sediments, locally showing the effects of thermal metamorphism. Further, elutriation pipes and ‘jigsaw-fit’ textures are observed in the peperites. The lavas and peperites are overlain by outward-dipping well-stratified scoria deposits defining part of a cinder cone, which is inferred to have emerged above sea level. Steep internal contacts with inward-dipping, structureless breccias likely represent the inner wall deposits of a central conduit. The deposits are cross-cut by late-stage dykes, which supplied fissure eruptions of geochemically similar lavas capping the scoria cone. The transition from explosive to effusive behaviour may reflect the decreased availability of water, possibly due to downward migration of the feeder conduit below the level of water-saturated sediments.