Thomas Scharf

Ageing in urban environments : Developing 'age-friendly' cities

Developing environments responsive to the aspirations and needs of older people has become a major concern for social and public policy. This article aims to provide a critical perspective on what has been termed ‘age-friendly cities’ by shifting the focus from questions such as ‘What is an ideal city for older people?’ to the question of ‘How age-friendly are cities?’ This approach, it is argued, might be more suited to deal with the complexities of cities as sites of interlocking and conflicting commercial, social, and political interests. This theme is developed by examining: first, the main factors driving the age-friendly debate; second, constraints and opportunities for older people living in urban environments; third, options for a critical social policy; and, fourth, examples of involving older people in the development of age-friendly environments. The article concludes with a brief summary of current tensions and contradictions in the age-friendly debate.

Social exclusion of older people in deprived urban communities of England

Addressing the causes and consequences of social exclusion represents a key theme in European social policy, reflecting growing awareness of the social costs which arise when individuals, families and communities become cut off from wider society. Conceptually, however, social exclusion remains underexplored in gerontology. The article suggests that exclusion represents a useful means of exploring the situation of older people in different environmental settings. Social exclusion in old age is conceptualised as a multi-dimensional phenomenon comprising of: exclusion from material resources; exclusion from social relations; exclusion from civic activities; exclusion from basic services; and neighbourhood exclusion. Drawing on a survey of 600 people aged 60 and over in deprived neighbourhoods of three English cities, the article develops indicators to represent each dimension of exclusion and seeks to assess the nature of social exclusion faced by older people in deprived neighbourhoods. Results reveal a considerable proportion of older people experiencing social exclusion in at least one form. The sample fell into three categories: 33% were not excluded on any of the five domains; 31% experienced exclusion on a single domain; 36% were vulnerable to the cumulative impact of multiple forms of exclusion. Multiple social exclusion was significantly correlated with respondents’ ethnic origin, educational status, housing tenure, perceived health status and quality of life. It is concluded that social exclusion represents a useful means of depicting disadvantage experienced by older people living in deprived urban neighbourhoods, and that it would be useful to extend the analysis to other types of residential setting.

Determinants of quality of life amongst older people in deprived neighbourhoods

This article analyses the determinants of the quality of life in a sample of 600 people aged 60 or more years living in deprived areas of three English cities. Data were collected by means of a face-to-face administered questionnaire. Two standardised measures, the ‘Satisfaction With Life Scale’ (SWLS) and the ‘Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale’ (PGCMS), and a single-item question were used to produce outcome measures of the quality of life. Using a conceptual model of quality of life factors, 21 socio-demographic, objective and subjective variables were correlated with each of the measures. Thirteen of these variables were subsequently entered in three multiple regression models. Subjective variables correlated significantly with all three quality of life measures, but socio-demographic and objective life condition variables correlated less strongly. Regression analysis revealed perception of own health, perceived ability to cope financially, perception of poverty over time and loneliness to be important determinants of the quality of life across all three quality of life measures. Variables that described characteristics of the urban environment had limited direct influence on the quality of life. The findings support the conceptual framework and highlight the key role played by subjective variables in determining the quality of life of older people in deprived urban areas.

Loneliness in urban neighbourhoods: an Anglo-Dutch comparison

Past studies in the UK and the Netherlands indicate that loneliness varies significantly according to characteristics of older people’s residential environment. This raises questions regarding potential neighbourhood influences on individuals’ social relationships in later life. This article examines neighbourhood influences on loneliness, using multiple classification analysis on comparable empirical data collected in the UK and the Netherlands. UK data arise from a survey of 501 people aged 60+ in deprived neighbourhoods of three English cities. Netherlands data derive from the NESTOR Living Arrangements and Social Network survey, with a sub-sample of 3,508 people aged 60+ drawn from a nationally representative sample of older people, living in 11 municipalities. Both surveys incorporated the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale. In addition to neighbourhood characteristics and indicators of health and social embeddedness, a typology of eight groups of persons was developed that accounted for individuals’ age, sex, and partner status. While 13% of participants in the UK were severely lonely, the proportion in the Netherlands was just four per cent. Mean loneliness scores in the UK varied significantly between the neighbourhoods under investigation. Additionally, the evaluated quality of the residential neighbourhood accounted for a relatively large degree of variance in loneliness in both countries.

Experiences of neighbourhood exclusion and inclusion among older people living in deprived inner-city areas in Belgium and England

ABSTRACT This article explores conceptual and empirical aspects of the social exclusion/inclusion debate in later life, with a particular focus on issues of place and space in urban settings. Exploratory findings are reported from two empirical studies in Belgium and England, which sought to examine experiences of social exclusion and inclusion among people aged 60 and over living in deprived inner-city neighbourhoods. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with an ethnically diverse sample of 102 older people in Belgium and 124 in England. Thematic analysis of interview data identifies four issues in relation to the neighbourhood dimension of social exclusion/inclusion in later life: experiences of community change; feelings of security and safety; the management of urban space; and strategies of control. The results suggest that neighbourhoods have a significant influence on shaping the experience of exclusion and inclusion in later life, with a number of similarities identified across the different study areas. The article concludes by discussing conceptual and policy issues raised by the research.

Poor Health and Loneliness in Later Life: The Role of Depressive Symptoms, Social Resources, and Rural Environments

Objectives. We draw on cognitive discrepancy theory to hypothesize and test a pathway from poor health to loneliness in later life. We hypothesize that poor health will have a negative influence on social participation and social resources, and these factors will mediate between health and loneliness. We hypothesize that rural environments will amplify any difficulties associated with social participation or accessing social resources and that depression will moderate how intensely people react to levels of social contact and support. Methods. We conceptualize a mediation model and a moderated-mediation model. Nationally representative data on older people living in the Republic of Ireland are used to validate the hypothesized pathways. Results. In the mediation model, health has a significant indirect effect on loneliness through the mediating variables social resources and social participation. In the moderated-mediation model, rurality moderates the pathway between health and social resources but not social participation. Depressive symptoms moderate the effect of social resources on loneliness but not social participation. Discussion. The results provide further credence to cognitive discrepancy theory, suggesting that depressive symptoms influence cognitive processes, interfering with judgments about the adequacy of social interaction. The theory is extended by demonstrating the impact of the environment on loneliness.

Rural and urban perspectives on growing old: developing a new research agenda

Urban and rural themes have played an important part in European gerontological research. This paper analyses current issues in the field of urban and rural studies as applied to understanding old age. Both dimensions are being affected by population movements of different kinds, driven to a significant degree by globalisation in its various forms. The paper summarises trends underpinning rural and urban living and evidence regarding the impact of change in these areas on daily life in old age. The article considers a number of research agendas which would advance rural and urban studies of ageing, these combining developments in geography and urban studies with those in critical gerontology. The paper argues that a revitalised rural and urban gerontology will bring forward major new themes and issues for social gerontology in the 21st century.

Older peopleis perceptions of the neighbourhood: Evidence from socially deprived urban areas

Neighbourhoods contribute significantly to shaping their residents’ identities. For older people, the neighbourhood may be even more important than for younger people. Ageing can be associated with an intensification of feelings about locality and space, and the neighbourhood may contribute significantly to older peoples quality of daily life. Within the context of a study that examines the concerns of older people living in areas of England characterised by intense social deprivation, the article explores perceptions of the local environment. Findings are reported from an empirical study conducted in nine socially deprived neighbourhoods across three cities. Data collection consisted of a survey of 600 people aged 60 and over, and in-depth interviews with 130 people of the same age group. The article focuses on older peoples views in relation to both positive and negative aspects of their local environment. It concludes with a discussion of three key themes: first, the question of older peopleís attachment to their neighbourhood; second, the issue of variation between areas; and third, the impact of place on the quality of older peoples daily life.

Ageing and intergenerational relationships in rural Germany

This paper uses a range of secondary data sources to analyse key elements of intergenerational relationships in Germany. Within the context of a discussion of regional differences in Germany’s population structure and aspects of socio-economic conditions in rural areas, the paper focuses on the following aspects of intergenerational relationships: household structures, proximity of the generations, frequency and intensity of contacts between the generations, intergenerational transfers and non-kin relationships. Where appropriate, comparisons are made between East and West Germany and between rural and urban areas. The analysis of data on intergenerational relationships highlights several difficulties associated with research on older people living in rural areas. It is suggested that these difficulties contribute to the distorted and contradictory views that are often associated with rural ageing.

Family, state, class and solidarity: re-conceptualising intergenerational solidarity through the grounded theory approach

The relationship between class and intergenerational solidarities in the public and private spheres calls for further conceptual and theoretical development. This article discusses the findings from the first wave of a qualitative longitudinal study entitled Changing Generations, conducted in Ireland in 2011–2012, comprising 100 in-depth interviews with men and women across the age and socioeconomic spectrums. Constructivist grounded theory analysis of the data gives rise to the following postulates: (1) intergenerational solidarity at the family level is strongly contoured by socioeconomic status (SES); (2) intergenerational solidarity evolves as family generations observe each others’ practices and adjust their expectations accordingly; (3) intergenerational solidarity within families is also shaped by the public sphere (the welfare state) that generates varying expectations and levels of solidarity regarding State supports for different age groups, again largely dependent on SES; (4) the liberal welfare state context, especially at a time of economic crisis, enhances the significance of intergenerational solidarity within families. We conclude by calling for research that is attuned to age/generation, gender and class, and how these operate across the family and societal levels.