Tim Foster

Predictors of Sustainability for Community-Managed Handpumps in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda

Rural water supply sustainability has remained an enduring policy challenge in sub-Saharan Africa for decades. Drawing on the largest data set assembled on rural water points in sub-Saharan Africa to date, this paper employs logistic regression analyses to identify operational, technical, institutional, financial, and environmental predictors of functionality for over 25 000 community-managed handpumps in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda. Risk factors significantly associated with nonfunctionality across all three countries were (a) system age, (b) distance from district/county capital, and (c) absence of user fee collection. In at least one of the three countries, other variables found to have significant multivariable adjusted associations with functionality status included well type, handpump type, funding organization, implementing organization, spare parts proximity, availability of a handpump mechanic, regular servicing, regular water committee meetings, women in key water committee positions, rainfall season, and perceived water quality. While the findings reinforce views that a multifaceted range of conditions is critical for the sustainability of community-managed handpumps, they also demonstrate that these factors remain absent from a high proportion of cases. Governments and development partners must significantly strengthen postconstruction support for operation and maintenance systems, and greater efforts are needed to test and evaluate alternative models for managing handpump water supplies.

Reducing risks to rural water security in Africa.

With increasing hydro-climatic risks in Africa all water resources will be affected (Vorosmarty et al. 2010; IPCC 2012). But the response to climate variability of groundwater will be slower than that of surface water. Groundwater resources are more resilient due to aquifer storage which acts as a buffer during periods of little or no rainfall. Despite the significant availability of groundwater resources across the major geological formations in Africa, the quantitative and qualitative distribution remains partly understood (MacDonald et al. 2012). Adapting to environmental change will likely require increasing use of groundwater for both domestic and productive uses. Information costs in recording longitudinal data on aquifer recharge and use are prohibitively high and point estimates from a limited sample of verifiable drilling sites provides partial information on whether shifting patterns of groundwater availability are attributable to environmental or operational factors. Sustainable use of aquifers is critical to inform and enforce appropriate policy responses to achieve rural water security for human development and environmental resilience in Africa (Bannerjee and Morella 2011; IPCC 2012). Smart handpumps that harness Africa’s expanding mobile network architecture provide a new technology to address the systemic informational deficit that limits accountability and increases risks of investments in and management of rural water supply (Thomson et al. 2012). Automatically measuring and transmitting low cost, reliable and scalable data on handpump performance allows three inter-connecting risks to rural water security to be simultaneously addressed: (a) environmental, (b) operational, and (c) governance. By explicitly linking groundwater resource risks with operational and governance risks the overlapping objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals and Millennium Development Goals (MDG) can be linked to the United Nations’ General Assembly recognition of the Human Right to Drinking Water and Sanitation.

Is silence golden? Of mobiles, monitoring, and rural water supplies

Reliable and cost-effective monitoring of rural water supply infrastructure has long been hampered by the geographical curse of dispersed and low-income populations, and weak institutional performance. Recent advances in monitoring technology combined with mobile network expansion into rural areas has created an opportunity to bypass these seemingly intractable challenges. Mobile-enhanced technologies have the potential to produce data that is orders of magnitude richer, faster, and cheaper than that provided by traditional monitoring methods, which require costly field visits. However, more data does not equate to better data; information generated by crowd-sourced and automated systems each has its respective limitations. We propose a framework for analysing monitoring and surveillance systems, which can help assess the strengths and weaknesses of different emerging approaches. We suggest that these advancements present an opportunity to fundamentally change the way we consider and conduct rural water s...

Impacts and implications of mobile water payments in East Africa

The rapid growth in Africas mobile communications sector offers new opportunities to address the continents enduring water service challenges. This paper examines the impacts and implications of mobile water payments in East Africa. Based on interviews with managers from water service providers across four countries and analysis of household survey and billing data from a water supply scheme in Kenya, the study quantifies the impacts of mobile water payments and reveals the factors that drive and curtail customer adoption. Results suggest that if broader behavioural and operational constraints can be overcome, partnerships between mobile network operators and water service providers could lead to more sustainable water service access for inclusive, developmental outcomes.

Evaluating waterpoint sustainability and access implications of revenue collection approaches in rural Kenya

Water policies in many sub-Saharan African countries stipulate that rural communities are responsible for self-financing their waterpoints operation and maintenance. In the absence of policy consensus or evidence on optimal payment models, rural communities adopt a diversity of approaches to revenue collection. This study empirically assesses waterpoint sustainability and access outcomes associated with different revenue collection approaches on the south coast of Kenya. The analysis draws on a unique data set comprising financial records spanning 27 years and 100 communities, operational performance indicators for 200 waterpoints, and water source choices for more than 2000 households. Results suggest communities collecting pay-as-you-fetch fees on a volumetric basis generate higher levels of revenue and experience better operational performance than communities charging flat fees. In both cases, financial flows mirror seasonal rainfall peaks and troughs. These outcomes are tempered by evidence that households are more likely to opt for an unimproved drinking water source when a pay-as-you-fetch system is in place. The findings illuminate a possible tension between financial sustainability and universal access. If the Sustainable Development Goal of “safe water for all” is to become a reality, policymakers and practitioners will need to address this issue and ensure rural water services are both sustainable and inclusive.

Mobile water payments in urban Africa: Adoption, implications and opportunities

Juxtaposing the rapid upsurge in mobile phone ownership is the slow progress being made towards the water access MDG. Between 1990 and 2008 the number of urban Africans lacking access to safe water more than doubled from 25 million to 52 million. Many water service providers (WSPs) are unable to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population as they remain trapped in a vicious cycle of poor operational performance and low cost recovery.

Risk factors associated with rural water supply failure: A 30-year retrospective study of handpumps on the south coast of Kenya

An improved understanding of failure risks for water supplies in rural sub-Saharan Africa will be critical to achieving the global goal of safe water for all by 2030. In the absence of longitudinal biophysical and operational data, investigations into water point failure risk factors have to date been limited to cross-sectional research designs. This retrospective cohort study applies survival analysis to identify factors that predict failure risks for handpumps installed on boreholes along the south coast of Kenya from the 1980s. The analysis is based on a unique dataset linking attributes of >300 water points at the time of installation with their operational lifespan over the following decades. Cox proportional hazards and accelerated failure time models suggest water point failure risks are higher and lifespans are shorter when water supplied is more saline, static water level is deeper, and groundwater is pumped from an unconsolidated sand aquifer. The risk of failure also appears to grow as distance to spare part suppliers increases. To bolster the sustainability of rural water services and ensure no community is left behind, post-construction support mechanisms will need to mitigate heterogeneous environmental and geographical challenges. Further studies are needed to better understand the causal pathways that underlie these risk factors in order to inform policies and practices that ensure water services are sustained even where unfavourable conditions prevail.

Multiple water source use in rural Vanuatu: are households choosing the safest option for drinking?

ABSTRACT Households in low- and middle-income countries commonly make use of multiple water sources. However, it remains unclear to what extent their drinking water choices are optimal from a health perspective. This matched cohort study across 10 islands in Vanuatu examined communities with both a groundwater and rainwater source to determine whether their preferred drinking option was the safest in microbial terms. In communities that preferred to drink rainwater, 56.5% of rainwater sources had ‘high-risk’ or ‘very high risk’ Escherichia coli contamination (> 10 MPN/100 mL) compared with 26.1% of groundwater sources (p = 0.092). Moreover, a preference for drinking rainwater was significantly associated with rainwater sources having ‘high-risk’ or ‘very high risk’ levels of E. coli contamination (p = 0.045). Results show that communities do not necessarily choose the safest water source for drinking. Findings also highlight the need to bolster local capacity to manage water quality risks and for Sustainable Development Goal monitoring to distinguish between protected and unprotected rainwater tanks.

Comparative performance evaluation of handpump water-supply technologies in northern Kenya and The Gambia

Safe drinking water for all is unlikely to be achieved without major improvements in the sustainability of rural water supplies in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite heavy dependence on groundwater across the African continent, there is little empirical evidence on the relative reliability of different water-lifting technologies. This study comparatively evaluated the operational performance of the BluePump against the Afridev, India Mark II and PB Mark II handpumps. The field assessment took place in Turkana County (northern Kenya) and The Gambia, contexts with contrasting environmental, social and institutional characteristics. When controlling for other variables, in both study sites the BluePump had significantly lower odds of a breakdown occurring over a 12-month period compared with other handpumps. The BluePump also had significantly lower odds of a nonfunctional status relative to the Afridev in Turkana, though no significant effect on functionality was observed relative to the India Mark II in either study site or the PB Mark II in The Gambia. In Turkana, the impact of fewer breakdowns on operational uptime and point-in-time functionality may have been moderated by a subsidised maintenance service for which communities pay a fixed annual fee irrespective of handpump type and breakdown frequency. In The Gambia, the BluePump had significantly longer breakdowns than Mark II handpumps because of a problematic maintenance model. The results indicate that technological innovations such as the BluePump can lead to operational improvements, but technology alone is no panacea and the long-term sustainability of water supplies ultimately depends upon the effectiveness of maintenance services.RésuméIl est peu probable que l’objectif d’une eau potable sure pour tous sera atteint sans des améliorations majeures de la durabilité des alimentations en eau rurales en Afrique subsaharienne. Malgré une forte dépendance vis à vis des eaux souterraines sur tout le continent africain, il existe peu de preuves empiriques sur la fiabilité relative des différentes technologies de pompage. Cette étude évalue de manière comparée la performance opérationnelle de la BluePump par rapport aux pompes à bras Afridev, l’India Mark II et la PB Mark II. L’évaluation de terrain a été menée dans le Comté de Turkana (Nord Kenya) et en Gambie, des contextes avec des caractéristiques contrastées en terme environnemental, social et institutionnel. Dans les deux sites d’étude, par comparaison avec les autres pompes à bras sur une période de 12 mois, lorsque les autres variables sont sous contrôle, la BluePump a significativement un moindre risque de panne. La BluePump a aussi significativement moins de risques d’être en état de non fonctionnement que l’Afridev au Turkana, bien qu’aucune différence significative de fonctionnement n’ait été observée avec l’India Mark II sur chacun des sites d’étude et avec la PB Mark II en Gambie. Au Turkana, l’impact d’un moindre taux de pannes sur le temps de fonctionnement opérationnel et de fonctionnement à tout instant peut résulter de l’existence d’un service de maintenance subventionné pour lequel les communautés payent une redevance annuelle fixe quel que soit le type de pompe et la fréquence de rupture. En Gambie, la BluePump a des pannes significativement plus longues que celles des pompes à bras Mark II à cause d’une organisation pour la maintenance qui pose problème. Ce résultat indique que les innovations technologiques telles que la BluePump peuvent conduire à des améliorations opérationnelles mais que la technologie seule n’est. pas une panacée et que la durabilité à long terme des alimentations en eau dépend en définitive de l’efficacité des services de maintenance.ResumenEs poco probable que se logre agua potable segura sin mayores mejoras en la sostenibilidad de los suministros de agua en zonas rurales del África subsahariana. A pesar de la fuerte dependencia de las aguas subterráneas en todo el continente africano, existe poca evidencia empírica sobre la fiabilidad relativa de las diferentes tecnologías de elevación de agua. Este estudio evaluó comparativamente el rendimiento operativo de BluePump frente a las bombas de mano Afridev, India Mark II y PB Mark II. La evaluación de campo tuvo lugar en el condado de Turkana (norte de Kenia) y Gambia, con contextos de características ambientales, sociales e institucionales contrastantes. Al controlar otras variables, en ambos sitios de estudio, BluePump tuvo una probabilidad significativamente menor de una falla que ocurriera durante un período de 12 meses en comparación con otras bombas manuales. El BluePump también tuvo probabilidades significativamente menores de un estado no funcional en relación con el Afridev en Turkana, aunque no se observó un efecto significativo sobre la funcionalidad en relación con el India Mark II en cualquiera de los sitios de estudio o el PB Mark II en Gambia. En Turkana, el impacto de un menor número de averías en el tiempo de actividad operativa y la funcionalidad de un punto en el tiempo puede haber sido moderado por un servicio de mantenimiento subsidiado para el cual las comunidades pagan una tarifa fija anual independientemente del tipo de bomba manual y de la frecuencia de averías. En Gambia, el BluePump tuvo fallas significativamente más largas que las bombas de mano Mark II debido a un modelo de mantenimiento problemático. Los resultados indican que las innovaciones tecnológicas como BluePump pueden conducir a mejoras operativas, pero la tecnología por sí sola no es una panacea y la sostenibilidad a largo plazo de los suministros de agua depende en última instancia de la efectividad de los servicios de mantenimiento.摘要在撒哈拉以南非洲地区,农村供水可持续性如果得不到大的改善,所有人就不可能获取安全的饮用水。尽管非洲大陆严重以来于地下水,但很少有不同提水技术相关可靠性的试验证据。本研究笔记评估了奥和BluePump、Afridev、 India Mark II 以及PB Mark II几种手摇泵的操作性能。在(肯尼亚北部)Turkana县和冈比亚针对不同的环境、社会和制度特征进行了野外评价。当控制其它变量时,两个研究场地的BluePump泵与其它手摇泵相比,在12个月的时期内发生故障的几率较低。在Turkana 县,BluePump手摇泵相对于Afridev手摇泵无功能状态的几率也很低,尽管没有观测到两个场地的India Mark II手摇泵和冈比亚的PB Mark II手摇泵的功能性有重要的影响。在Turkana 县,很少的故障对正常运行时间和时间点功能性的影响可以通过付费的维修服务得到缓解,社区针对无论什么类型的手摇泵和故障频率每年支付固定的费用。在冈比亚,BluePump手摇泵发生故障的时间要比India Mark II手摇泵要长很多,这是因为维护模式有问题。结果表明,技术创新诸如BluePump手摇泵可改善运行状态,但是单凭技术并不是灵丹妙药,供水的长期可持续性最终要依赖于维修服务的效力。ResumoSerá improvável alcançar água potável para todos sem melhorias significativas na sustentabilidade nas fontes de abastecimento na África subsaariana. Apesar de uma forte dependência na água subterrânea em todo o continente Africano, existe pouca evidencia empírica sobre o desempenho de diferentes tecnologias de extração de água. Este estudo avaliou comparativamente o desempenho da BluePump com as bombas manuais Afridev, India Mark II e PB Mark II. A avaliação de campo foi realizada no Município de Turkana (Norte do Quenia) e em Gambia, contextos com características ambientais, sociais e institucionais contrastantes. Controlando para outras variáveis, em ambos os países o BluePump apresenta menor probabilidade de avaria durante um período de 12 meses em comparação com as outras bombas manuais. O BluePump apresenta também significativamente menor probabilidade de atingir um estado não funcional em relação ao Afridev em Turkana, apesar de não existir um efeito significativo em relação ao India Mark II em ambos os estudos de caso, ou em relação ao PB Mark II em Gambia. Em Turkana, o impacto de menos avarias sobre o tempo operacional e funcionalidade pontual poderá ter sido moderado por um serviço de manutenção subsidiado, pelo qual comunidades pagam uma taxa anual fixa independentemente do tipo de bomba ou frequência de avaria. Em Gambia, o BluePump teve avarias significativamente mais extensas que as bombas Mark II devido ao modelo de manutenção problemático. Os resultados indicam que inovações tecnologias tais como o BLuePump podem levar a melhorias operacionais, mas que a tecnologia por si só não é uma panaceia e que a sustentabilidade do fornecimento de água a longo termo depende da eficácia dos serviços de manutenção.

Factors associated with operational sustainability of rural water supplies in Cambodia

Improving the sustainability of rural water supplies in low- and middle-income countries will be critical to achieving the Sustainable Development Goal target of safe drinking water for all. This investigation assessed the factors associated with rural water supply operation and maintenance outcomes in rural Cambodia, with a particular focus on the influence of handpump technology and ownership arrangements. The analysis drew on a comprehensive dataset of water points in Chum Kiri district and examined three operational outcomes: functionality, reliability and repairability. Results show that handpump type, ownership, perceptions of water quality, handpump age and distance to the provincial capital were all significant predictors of operational outcomes. The odds of a handpump being functional were significantly higher when the handpump was privately owned, was located closer to the provincial capital, was installed more recently, and supplied water perceived to be of good quality. Less frequent breakdowns were significantly associated with Afridev handpumps and water perceived to be of good quality. If a breakdown occurred, the odds of a repair being carried out were significantly higher when the handpump was a VN6 suction pump, was privately owned, was located closer to the provincial capital, and the water was perceived to be of good quality. The results indicate that technology, ownership, water quality and geography all contribute to the operational performance of rural water supplies, and that effective maintenance systems are a prerequisite for sustainability.