Timo Dönsberg

A primary standard of optical power based on induced-junction silicon photodiodes operated at room temperature

We present the design and construction of a new compact room temperature predictable quantum efficient detector (PQED). It consists of two custom-made induced-junction photodiodes mounted in a wedge trap configuration and a window aligned at Brewsters angle for high transmission of p polarized light. The window can also be removed, in which case a dry nitrogen flow system is utilized to prevent dust contamination of the photodiodes. Measurements of individual detectors at the wavelength of 488 nm indicate that reflectance and spectral responsivity are consistent within 4 ppm and 13 ppm peak-to-peak variation, respectively, and agree with the predicted values. The spatial non-uniformity of the responsivity of the PQED is an order of magnitude lower than that of single photodiodes. The internal quantum efficiency of the photodiodes is concluded to be spatially uniform within 50 ppm. These measurement results—together with the responsivity predictable by fundamental laws of physics—provide evidence that the room temperature PQED may replace the cryogenic radiometer as a primary standard of optical power in the visible wavelength range of 380 nm to 780 nm.

Use of the predictable quantum efficient detector with light sources of uncontrolled state of polarization

Analysis of the reflectance losses of the predictable quantum efficient detector (PQED) operated at room temperature is presented. An efficient method of using the ratio of photocurrents from the two photodiodes of the PQED is developed to determine the reflectance losses without direct measurement of the reflectance for an unknown state of polarization of the incident light. A detailed analysis is presented to estimate the associated reflectance losses for detectors with either seven or nine internal reflections. For the 7-reflection PQED, the relative standard uncertainty component of spectral responsivity due to reflectance loss correction can be reduced mostly below 100?ppm with the photocurrent ratio measurement whereas for the 9-reflection PQED the uncertainties remain below 20?ppm in the wavelength range from 400 to 900?nm with an uncontrolled polarization state of the incident light.

New source and detector technology for the realization of photometric units

The production of incandescent light bulbs is bound to end, as incandescent lighting is being phased out globally in favour of more energy-efficient and sustainable solutions. Temporally stable light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are potential candidates to replace incandescent lamps as photometric source standards. However, traditional V(λ) filter based photometers may have large uncertainty when LEDs are measured instead of incandescent lamps. This is due to the narrow and complicated spectra of LEDs. When the spectra of LEDs are limited to the visible wavelength range, new silicon detector technology can be advantageously exploited in photometry. We present a novel method—based on the recently introduced Predictable Quantum Efficient Detector (PQED)—for the realization of photometric units which completely eliminates the need to use V(λ) filters. Instead, the photometric weighting is taken into account numerically by measuring the relative spectral irradiance. The illuminance values of a blue and a red LED were determined using the new method and a conventional reference photometer. The values obtained by the two methods deviated from each other by −0.06% and 0.48% for the blue and red LED, respectively. The PQED-based values have much lower standard uncertainty (0.17% to 0.18%) than the uncertainty of the values based on the conventional photometer (0.46% to 0.51%).

Liquid nitrogen cryostat for predictable quantum efficient detectors

We present the design and testing of a cryostat to be used with induced junction photodiodes of the Predictable Quantum Efficient Detector (PQED). Long-term reflectance measurements indicate that possible ice growth on the photodiodes at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (LN) is significantly reduced from earlier PQED cryostat designs.

Black silicon n-type photodiodes with high response over wide spectral range

Commercial photodiodes suffer from reflection losses and different recombination losses that reduce the collection efficiency of photogenerated charge carriers. Recently, we realized a near-ideal silicon photodiode, which steps closer to the physical performance limits of silicon photodiodes than any other silicon photodiode realized before. Our device exhibits an external quantum efficiency above 95% over the wavelength range of 235 – 980 nm, and provides a very high response at incident angles of up to 70 degrees. The high quantum efficiency is reached by 1) virtually eliminating front surface reflectance by forming a “black silicon” nanostructured surface having dimensions in the range of wavelength of optical light and 2) using an induced junction for signal collection, formed by negatively charged alumina, instead of a conventional doped p-n junction. Here, we describe the latest efforts in further development of the photodiode technology. In particular, we report improvements both in the short wavelength response via better control of the surface quality, and superior response to photons with energies close to the silicon bandgap.