Timothy D. Lee

Can Forgetting Facilitate Skill Acquisition

This chapter presents a conceptual synthesis of some related, and perhaps, previously unrelated empirical research. The impetus for this chapter arises primarily from our recent explorations of the so-called “contextual” “interference” effect (Lee & Magill, 1983a, 1983b; Lee, Magill & Weeks, 1984; Magill & Lee, 1984) and specifically, the inability of current theories of motor learning to explain why this effect occurs.

Cognitive Effort and Motor Learning

Recent research on the role of practice variables during the acquisition of motor skills is reviewed. These practice variables include (a) the effects of a models skill level during observation, (b) how augmented feedback is provided to a learner, and (c) how practice conditions are arranged when learning multiple tasks. The results of research in these areas suggest that cognitive processes play an important role during the early stages of skill acquisition. Moreover, the effort by which these cognitive processes are undertaken is influenced by practice variables. Motor learning is enhanced when these variables are manipulated to promote cognitive effort by a learner.

Relative Phase Alterations during Bimanual Skill Acquisition

The purposes of the research reported here were (a) to examine changes in relative phase during the acquisition of a new coordination pattern and (b) to determine the effect of learning this pattern on the ability to perform other coordination patterns. Ten subjects practiced an upper limb coordination task that required a 90 degrees phase offset and different amplitudes for each arm. A gross approximation of the mean relative phase for the intended coordination pattern occurred quickly, but the attainment of stability occurred much more gradually. These results were accompanied by changes in pattern stability across practice and on various transfer tests. Learning of the new coordination pattern also affected the stability of the antiphase mode, but this effect was only temporary.

Acquiring bimanual skills: Contrasting forms of information feedback for interlimb decoupling.

The present experiments addressed the learners capability to perform different upper-limb actions simultaneously with the help of various sources of information feedback. An elbow flexion movement was made in the left limb together with a flexion-extension-flexion movement in the right limb. Interlimb interactions were assessed at the structural as well as the metrical level of movement specification during acquisition and retention. Despite a strong initial tendency for the limbs to be synchronized, findings revealed that Ss became gradually more successful in interlimb decoupling as a result of practice with augmented feedback. However, detailed knowledge of movement kinematics was no more effective than global outcome information for interlimb decoupling, indicating that knowledge of results may have more potential for acquiring multiple degree-of-freedom tasks than previously believed. Finally, the data support the general notion that learning new coordination tasks involves the suppression of preexisting preferred coordination tendencies, which is often a prerequisite for building new coordination modes.

Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers' skill

In this study, we examined the influence of internal and external attention instructions on the performance of a pitch shot by golfers who were either highly skilled (mean handicap = 4) or low skilled (mean handicap = 26). Ten golfers in each skill group used a 9-iron to pitch a ball as close as possible to an orange pylon, which was located at distances of 10, 15, 20 or 25 m from the golfer. Focus of attention was manipulated within participants (counterbalanced across golfers). Under internal focus of attention instructions, the participants were told to concentrate on the form of the golf swing and to adjust the force of their swing depending on the distance of the shot. For the external focus of attention conditions, the participants were told to concentrate on hitting the ball as close to the target pylon as possible. The most intriguing finding was an interaction of skill with focus of attention instructions for variability in performance. Similar to the findings of Wulf and colleagues, the highly skilled golfers performed better with external attention instructions than with internal focus instructions. In contrast, the low-skill golfers performed better with the internal than with the external focus of attention instructions. These findings are discussed relative to theoretical issues in motor learning and practical issues for golf instruction.

Distribution of Practice in Motor Skill Acquisition: Learning and Performance Effects Reconsidered

Abstract Recent reviews about the effects of distribution of practice in motor learning have produced quite divergent conclusions. While there is agreement that massed practice depresses performance, the effect on learning has no firm consensus. One position is that massed practice depresses learning, although there are many that argue for no learning effect. In the present paper we review this literature. When distribution is considered in terms of the length of the inter-trial interval, there is strong evidence that massed practice depresses performance and learning (when learning is assessed by absolute retention measures). This conclusion was confirmed by the results of a meta-analysis. This finding is discussed relative to other literature on distribution of practice as well as some recent issues in motor learning.

Interlimb coordination: Learning and transfer under different feedback conditions

Abstract The role of intrinsic and extrinsic information feedback in learning a new bimanual coordination pattern was investigated. The pattern required continuous flexion-extension movements of the upper limbs with a 90 ° phase offset. Separate groups practiced the task under one of the following visual feedback conditions: (a) blindfolded (reduced FB group), (b) with normal vision (normal FB group), or (c) with concurrent relative motion information (enhanced FB group). All groups were subjected to three different transfer test conditions at regular intervals during practice. These tests included reduced, normal vision, and enhanced vision conditions. Experiment 1 showed that the group receiving augmented information feedback about its relative motions in real-time produced the required coordination pattern more successfully than the remaining two groups, irrespective of the transfer conditions under which performance was evaluated. Experiment 2 replicated and extended the superiority of the enhanced feedback group during acquisition and retention. Experiment 3 demonstrated that successful transfer to various transfer test conditions was not a result of test-trial effects. Overall, the data suggest that the conditions that optimized performance of the coordination pattern during acquisition also optimized transfer performance.

Effects of the Model's Skill Level on Observational Motor Learning

Observation of a model prior to physical practice often facilitates the acquisition of motor skills. The majority of research studies on observational motor learning has used a skilled model for the demonstration. Recent research, however, suggests that observing an unskilled (learning) model may also be effective. The experiment reported here compared motor skill acquisition following observation of a learning model or a skilled model to the performance of subjects who lacked the benefit of observation. The task was to play a computer tracking game. Subjects were tested in pairs. Observers watched either a skilled or a learning model perform 3 trials. The observers then practiced the game for 3 trials. Observation of another 12 trials was followed by 12 more practice trials. Substantial observational learning was found, as both groups of observers performed better than the learning models after both the 3 initial trials of observation and after 12 more observation trials. However, there were no differences due to observing the skilled or the learning model. These findings are discussed in relation to theoretical issues of observational learning.

AGE-RELATED DEFICITS IN MOTOR LEARNING AND DIFFERENCES IN FEEDBACK PROCESSING DURING THE PRODUCTION OF A BIMANUAL COORDINATION PATTERN

Learning and transfer of a new bimanual coordination pattern were investigated in a group of adolescents and elderly subjects. The pattern consisted of continuous horizontal flexionextension movements with a 90 phase offset between the upper limbs. All subjects practised the task under augmented feedback conditions, involving a real-time orthogonal display of both limb movements. Three different transfer test conditions were administered at regular intervals during practice, i.e. blindfolded, with normal vision, and with augmented visual feedback. Findings showed that the performance levels of the elderly group were lower than the group of adolescents and their rate of improvement was also smaller. The observed learning deficits in the elderly are hypothesised to be a consequence of a decreased capability to overcome the preferred coordination modes, as required for developing new coordination modes. This reduced capability to suppress prepotent response tendencies may reflect an age-related decrease in the efficiency of inhibitory processes in the central nervous system and may be associated with changes in frontal lobe functioning.

Schema theory: Critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning

Abstract This paper is based on a symposium celebrating the 26th anniversary of the publication of“A Schema Theory of Discrete Motor Skill Learning” (Schmidt, 1975) held at the annual conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity in June 2001. We provide a brief historical context for schema theory and a review of the development of the mechanistic approach to motor learning in general. We explore recent findings in mental practice, observational learning, augmented feedback presentation, and the variability of practice that are inconsistent with schema theory and provide a rationale for the importance of cognitive activity in motor learning.